2019年12月29日 星期日

〈孔恩VS.費曼-高涌泉〉筆記


  1. 孔恩(1922-1996)
    (就是一些孔恩簡單的介紹,略過不寫)
  2. 費曼(1918-1988)
    (也是一些費曼簡單的介紹,略過不寫)
  3. 孔恩VS.費曼
    作者要藉著《結構》與《物理定律的特性》兩書相互對照,來說明孔恩的不足
    1. 對孔恩來說,數學形式的變更是無關於物理概念的
      費曼則認為不同的數學形式牽涉到不同的哲學(物理)概念
    2. 孔恩與費曼都重視對物理定律的直觀感受,孔恩談蓋士塔轉換,費曼則談心理認知,顯然有其相似之處
    3. 孔恩認為新舊典範之間有種斷裂,如牛頓與愛因斯坦,但費曼從數學架構上來看,則認為兩者有其相似之處
    4. 作者認為孔恩在後記所言"從本體論的發展而言,科學理論並沒有進展"這是似乎是一個相當模糊的說法,並認為新舊理論之間也許會近似孔恩的蓋士塔轉換,但要說徹底的不可轉換,似乎沒有(以作者的經驗來談)
  4. 數學與物理
    作者認為孔恩的理論過度低估儀器與數學在物理學進展所扮演的角色,覺得強調世界觀轉變的科學革命說法,是不能恰當地涵蓋科學活動的全面意義。
    1. 愛因斯坦的(狹義與廣義)相對論是孔恩"典範"的一個標準例子
      愛因斯坦方程式可由兩條不同物理概念的進路抵達,相對於不同的世界觀,不如說是共同的數學語言與數學方程式
    2. 望遠鏡的發明及爾後的改良開啟與促進了近代天文學的發展,是科學史上重要事件
      由不同的數學家進行不同世界觀的猜測以及不同數學形式的提出,是現今的理論物理學的常態,時常在這些不同的世界觀遊走,而不會因為世界觀不同有所阻礙。
      (我想,作者大概是想表示孔恩所謂的不可共量與翻譯崩潰沒有想像中那麼隔閡)
    3. 當物理知識不斷地以數學公式的形式在累積時,有一個問題科學哲學家花相當的精力去思辨,那就是公式中符號意義的問題
      以質能公式與牛二中的M來說明,兩者在實驗上的數值是一樣的,是因為其可以從數學上的關係去求得,對物理學家來說,背後的概念似乎不是重點,而是為何同樣的數字會出現在不同的實驗數據中。
  5. 科學方法
    近代物理學家幾乎不太談論科學方法,也不太受科學哲學影響。
    所謂"理性"在科學研究過程中並不重要,而且往往最合理的事情不一定是對的
    作者認為如果將"科學革命"與"不可共量性"當成是適用範圍有限的補充概念,是可以接受的,但若以其為核心,就易導致相對主義的結果。

覺得這篇文章想要討論什麼?
作者從一個物理學家的立場出發,藉著孔恩與費曼的比較,提出孔恩理論的不足之處

我覺得這篇文章有哪些重點?或是我的心得?
我覺得一個物理學家的觀點對科學史或是科學哲學來說很珍貴,畢竟這些物理學家的成果、社群,或是其本身,就是我們研究的對象。
我想,最有意義的就是物理理論背後的數學,孔恩似乎很少談到這一塊,可以對於物理學家而言,他們似乎更重視數學語言的建構與推演,當然就無關世界觀的轉變,這似乎是一塊針對孔恩理論的有趣進路

〈"孔恩一生"的歷史與社會脈絡,評吳以義著《庫恩》一書-傅大為〉筆記


  1. 對該書的評論-缺點
    1. 作者認為《庫恩》一書只有討論到1983,可是孔恩是在1996去世,顯然該書沒有含括到晚年孔恩的思想
    2. 該書在描述孔恩的科學哲學面向,顯得零星與簡略,作者認為科學哲學方面的思想是其影響最大的部分,以至於晚期的孔恩花了很多心思在與科學哲學界對話
  2. 對該書的評論-優點
    1. 作者認為該書為結構之前與之後的發展脈絡,提供了一個不錯的描繪
      該書透過追述孔恩早期論文與書評以及對包括孔恩在內的幾位科學史家進行採訪,使得《結構》的概念發展顯得更加立體
  3. 孔恩與"科學研究"後來發展的關係
    1. 孔恩《結構》一書的思想在20世紀末的科學史界引起一陣革命(孔恩1991年演講中的主持人所言),這場革命在英國領頭的是愛丁堡科學社會學學派,其代表著作是《巨獸與空氣幫浦》,在法國領頭的是後結構與知識/權力觀點的歷史研究,其代表著作為《實驗生活》。
      科學研究(SS)對科學史學界與客觀科學知識,輸入大量的利益、權力、女性等觀點,孔恩一書似乎為其浪潮的帶領者(儘管孔恩自己排斥科學研究的取向)。
      相較於SS的顛覆性,孔恩反而更著重在維護古典科學的形象。

覺得這篇文章想要討論什麼?
作者針對吳以義一書提出評論,最後補充了一下孔恩與SS發展的關係

我覺得這篇文章有哪些重點?或是我的心得?
ㄟ都~因為我沒看過那本書,也不知道作者評論的有沒有道理,但反正好像還不錯,改天借本看看

2019年12月28日 星期六

〈科學的哲學發展史中的孔恩-傅大為〉筆記


  1. 本世紀英美科學的哲學的一些歷史因緣
    維也納學圈以邏輯與數學帶動20世紀上半科學哲學的發展,他們專注提出一套標準來化約與檢證科學理論,然而,不但沒有提出一個清晰客觀的判準,反而引發許多邏輯問題,使得科學哲學趨向統計與數學,離科學反而越來越遠。
  2. 科學史研究的一些發展對科學哲學的影響與挑戰
    1. 科學史20世紀後的新發展
      1. 對自18世紀以來富有啟蒙形象的科學進行挑戰,並對嚴格的邏輯論證在科學當中的重要性提出質疑?
      2. 對那些啟蒙或前啟蒙時代的自然哲學家分析其預設與思考方式,發現其多具有形上因素,然對邏輯取向的科哲來說,那是屬於發現的邏輯,而非驗證的情境,因此忽略不理。
        但發現的邏輯難道對科學結構與發展不重要嗎?
      3. 邏輯取向的科學哲學無法對科學革命提出判準,那是否表示科學的發展不符合科哲所謂的"理性"呢?
  3. 孔恩的心理歷程:他的啟蒙
    1. 孔恩的疑惑
      在物理現象之外,亞里斯多德的觀察十分敏銳與切實,但為何偏偏在物理現象上,會說出十分荒謬的話來呢?(以現代科學的立場來看的話)
      1. 啟蒙時代的回答:因為迷信與權威崇拜
      2. 維也納學圈的回答:形上學語意的混亂、沒有驗證標準
      3. 科學史外在論的回答:特殊的經濟、社會條件,以及利益結構
      4. 孔恩的回答:不可共量性與《科學革命的結構》一書
  4. 《結構》引發的批評
    1. 源自語言哲學的批評
      1. 普南認為當我們去了解、比較一些其他的思想系統時,我們一定得先設定彼此間有某些相同的東西存在,比較與了解才有可能。
        因此我們說能夠理解亞里斯多德與我們生存在不同的世界,是矛盾的。
      2. 孔恩回應說,了解另一個世界不是尋求交集的過程,而是學習那個世界的語言,接著投入那個世界
    2. 拉卡圖的批評
      拉卡圖與費若本相較於其他的批評者,接受孔恩歷史性的挑戰,回以歷史性的質疑
      拉卡圖以牛頓可以同時在自己與笛卡爾的世界中進行研究,來批評不可共量性中的心理機制,並企圖證明孔恩懷疑科學進步與理性的態度與論證是錯誤的。
    3. 費若本的批評
      費若本批評常態科學的存在與價值,認為科學史並沒有如孔恩所說的那樣,有一個全體科學家遵從的規則與條約,反而應該是不擇手段的機會主義式。
      另外,認為一個科學應該接收多方面的挑戰,才能有更多的成長,而不是繼續發展常態科學。
  5. 孔恩的科學的哲學中一個最值得注意的面相
    作者認為最值得注意的面向是孔恩把"科學發展"的面相帶進科學哲學的探討當中,引發我們對於進步與理性的質疑。
  6. 結論:我們的一些課題
    1. 關於基礎科學
      1. 所謂技術、應用科學的發展,端賴於相應的科學社群是否自主、健全,而不在乎是否有一套紮實的基礎科學從旁支持
      2. 從孔恩的觀點來看,我們認為所謂"先顧好基礎科學,再延伸應用科學"這個概念是有問題的,因為那個概念預設前後關係,與不可共量是相違背的,再來他也挑戰,所謂基礎科學知識很容易輸出到不同的相關學科這個想法。
      3. 從科學史與科學社會史來看的話,能發現並沒有所謂基礎科學有助於應用科學這個事實,反而常常是應用科學的發展,促使基礎科學或古典科學的進展。

        接著,回顧今天的科學發展,我們定義基礎科學的方式,並不是以科學的內容,而是以該學科在科學-技術-工業的大系統內所佔據的位置,來進行定義,因此,所謂發展基礎科學,有必須要再深入探究其內容
      4. 作者認為以功利觀點或是基礎觀點來決定我們的科學教育或發展政策,是有其疑慮的。
    2. 關於中國科學史
      我們發現孔恩的三部曲發展模式,似乎無法套在中國科學發展上,且中國似乎也沒有發現一個大的科學傳統,反而是一個個小的科學傳統。
      李約瑟的研究方法,專注於科學成就與社會文化的來回撞擊,似乎忽略孔恩所注重的科學社群面向。

覺得這篇文章想要討論什麼?
這篇文章在一個科學哲學發展的歷史脈絡中,談論孔恩的結構一書所帶來的啟發以及引發的批評,最後則以結構一書中的概念對科學教育政策與中國科學史提出一些想法

我覺得這篇文章有哪些重點?或是我的心得?
我覺得前面的脈絡整理,讓我很清楚的瞭解孔恩與結構在科學哲學的地位,不過如果可以把後續的演變,如科學社會史或STS之類,一起拉進來談,可能會更豐富。

2019年12月23日 星期一

〈清代臺灣熟番地權的分類與演變-柯志明〉筆記


  1. 前言
    1. 日治初期從事臺灣舊慣研究的法律學者與統治當局出於比較、了解與掌握的意圈 ,有意無意地將母國本身採行的近代歐陸法概念套用在臺灣舊慣上,就產權(特別是地權 ) 從事類比與歸類 。
    2. 作者認為《私法》模稜兩可的香租分類非但不夠明確,與作者從契字文書上觀察、歸納得到的番租頹型亦有所出入 。
      並特此就書內提及的各種番租額型及演變的過程,予以精簡整理,試著與《私法》及《臺灣土地慣行一斑》 (以下簡稱土地慣行,土地調查局撰)的說法對話。
  2. 大租之上還有大租?
    1. 《私法》:
      1. 番租的起源與沿革或有其特殊之處,然其性質與大租權並無不同 
      2. 其權利之內容與性質與一般大祖大同小異,所差者唯番租 
        1. 以番地為目的
        2. 以番社或番丁為權利者
        3. 一般大租之上亦有番租存在的情形 
          1. 就筆者區分得出來的五種番租類型:純社帥的番租、貼納的番租、番大租、兔正供的 「番大祖 」 與社番口糧租裡,符合 「 一般大租之上 」 的,只有純社餉的番租與貼納的番租二類
    2. 純社餉的番租
      純為社餉的番租係直接由噗社演變而來,即習稱的代納番餉、代輸社餉、或代番納(輸 ) 餉。漢人墾戶所繳納的番租就是社餉本身。
      純社餉的番租類型存續的期間並不長 , 特別是在乾隆三年 (乾隆朝,1736-1795) 廢除社餉改徵番丁銀後,迅即由貼納的番租類型所取代 。
    3. 貼納的番租
      若同時有多位漢人欲使用番社的土地(隨著移民增加的趨勢,這似乎是相當自然的結果) ,而且社師之收納由番社自行統籌(至少官方表面上的政策是鼓勵番社自辦,不用假手漢人 ) 、分攤到個別的漢人開墾者 , 這種情形下會比較容易產生 「 貼番納餉 」 開墾番地的現象。因為番社在議價條件上處於較從前有利的地位,貼納的番租數額往往會超過社餉

      1. 就是社餉以外歸於番社自用的部份,在當時也常被稱為社課、社課穀、或社課棄(以相對於社餉、番丁餉、番丁銀等)。
        貼納的番租因此是社餉的擴大,實際上包括社制與貼納的社課兩部份。
        社餉以現金繳納(以銀元為單位)
        貼納的社課則通常為稻穀寶物(以石為單位 )
      2. 清初 ,依據有無合法報墾的程序,漢人墾戶籍也付番租 一代納社齣或貼番納帥一一取得番地開墾榷的途徑又可分別為二
        1. 取得「民番無礙 」 的合約字,以無主荒地名目報墾番地
          藉詞「民番無礙 」 以無主荒地名義報墾的番地才陞科,多為豪強立戶報墾番地再倚勢欺隱田園以多報少,因有無報陸之別,此者為合法的墾戶 /業戶
        2. 在有意逃避土地稅的情形下,假借「番佃」的名義取得番地的開墾權,並未依法報墾
          貼番納餉贌墾的番地多匿不報陞,因有無報陸之別,此者在法律地位上則被視為「番佃(故稱之為「番佃墾戶) 而不是業戶 
        3. 清廷為了清出漢人私墾匿報的番地田園,遂於雍正五至九年施行地稅改革,透過特赦及減稅要求番個墾戶 「首報陞科」造成這些人所贌墾的番地大量轉換名目成為民田 。首報陞科後,番佃墾戶終於在法律上升格 , 正式成為名實相符的合法墾戶 /業戶。
          清廷清理欺隱田園令其首報陞科的同時,為恐危及熟番生計 ,規定漢人墾戶將番地陞科納供後仍須帶納社餉 ( 因為雙納又被稱為「重科」)  原先漢人開墾番地陞科管業的兩種形式均適用雍正九年奉旨遵行的法規 一一「番社草地贌與漢人報墾,仍納社餉」-一律貼納番租 。 
    4. 社課的保護
      已被漢業戶陞科管業的番地, 官方雖然仍令漢業戶照舊貼納番租,但番租終究不過是殘存的現象 。 除 「 社餉」的部份數額固定外,貼納的部份一 一 社課一 一 變異頗大,可以討價還價,可能被買 銷 , 甚至可能被抗納 。這種情形不免造成民番糾紛層出不窮, 甚至可能與番佃墾戶的首報陞科共同構成雍正九至十年北路熟番集體叛變背後的主要原因之一 
  3. 番業戶作為「變例」? 
    1. 《私法》:對番業戶的描述是 ,(番業戶) 開墾之地與民田同樣,辦理陸科手續繳納土地稅
      漢人個戶向番業戶繳納的番租其實就是臺灣民間漢人間慣行的大租 , 故稱為番大租 , 番業主所繳的正供即出自於此
      對於番業戶成立的理由 , 《私法》與《土地慣行》僅簡單交代是為了與侵墾混占番地之漢墾戶相抗衡,並將之視為變例
      作者細究諸多番業戶的相關資料,實難同意《私法》 與 《土地慣行》 等將番業戶視為變例的說法 。 
    2. 番業戶的出現
      番業戶在雍正八年獲得清廷承認而成立以來 , 是實存而且實質上合法的重要社會經濟現象 。
      1. 在雍正八年之前 , 番租的起因是源自繳納社餉的義務 , 以代番納的或貼納社餉的方式存在,租額的來源卻是附屬於漢大租 , 形成《私法》所謂 「一般大租之上亦有番租存在的情形」。

        直到雍正八年 , 番業戶成立而與漢業戶一視同仁後,番租才得以直接向漢人個戶收取 , 自主於漢大租之外,以番大租的形式獨立存在。

        番業戶 自漢佃戶處所能取得的租佃利益通常較漢業戶為差 。 這個結果造成番大租與貼納的番租(藉抽取貼餉番租)兩者間的混淆 。 
    3. 番業戶的轉賣
      1. 乾隆三年後漢人既然無法再如雍正時直接贌買番地報陞 , 或如同清初時藉詞「民番無礙」以無主荒地的名義報墾番地,取得熟番地的管道就只剩下番業戶轉賣 : 先請熟番將番地報墾變更為民地 , 再轉賣漢人。
      2. 在番業戶報墾陞科的情形下 ,雖言番大租與漢大租一例依法受到 「平等」 的對待,然實際的結果顯示 , 處於弱勢團體地位的熟番處境實在相當悲慘。多數自行報墾的番地,轉眼就因經營困難,轉賣過戶給漢人
      3. 直到乾隆中期以後,撥派熟番守隘的政策確立,為確保守隘熟番之口糧收入,清廷才認真的、全盤性的重新檢討過去保護僅及於熟番自耕地的既有政策,並慎重考量熟番因守隘勤務而難以自耕後,如何保護其主要收入來源,也就是番租的問題。
  4. 所謂的「番大租 」
    1. 「追呼之累」
      1. 基於族群隔離的原則,清廷起初試圖藉由番地免陞,來扶植熟番自主的生計 ,並防範番地變更成民地轉賣流失(免報陞當然也就無從過戶給漢人 )。
        然此種保護僅止於自耕番地,至於招佃收租的番地,曾透過幾次清釐番地,其目的在將番民間私下連法存在的租佃關係化暗為明,予以合法化,以便納入管轄及課稅

        清釐番地如果有好處的話,主要在於藉由清理田土的機會將漢人利用高利貸等種種非法手段侵蝕霸佔的番地奪回一一「斷歸還番承管」 。
        這些由漢人墾戶招佃私墾或由漢人佃戶霸耕的番地,由於尚未陞科納供(或因為是「 霸佔」而無法陞科 )故尚得以斷歸番管 ,由番社立戶陞科 (向原佃或換佃)取租 ,然對於弱勢的番業戶而言,僅僅是"目下徒有歸番之名,將來恐多追呼之累"
      2. 張珽的番地改革
        番地即使在招漢佃戶的情況下仍得與自耕番地一體適用免陞的特別保護
        此外, 為防範漢佃戶多方侵吞番大租而硬性規定番大祖額比照臺灣一般通行的大租額(因租額相同,故以番大租稱之)

        與從前番業戶(以及當時漢業戶)所收的大租間大相逕庭之處在,乾隆三十三年後的番大租因為番地從此不用再報陞 , 故得以免稅 , 是免納正供的 「 番大租」免陞科納供不僅減輕了番地稅負 ,也斷絕了過戶給漢人的途徑
    2. 「番地原無徵賦之例」?
      1. 《私法》對乾隆三十三年張延頒佈的法規在解釋上有兩點值得爭議之處必須再加澄清:
        1. 政府廢除了已陞科熟番田園的正供
          1. 《私法〉 聲稱"帶正供之番地是為一種變例","乾隆三十三年 ( 張珽曉諭 一一筆者註 ) 後對此等土地的課稅全予廢除 」(私法 352 )。 
          2. 然而, 事實上,張珽曉諭只規範到以後的行為:"嗣後凡斷還番管業,著民人向番承佃納租者,概免報陞", 並未免除既往已陞科番地的正供
        2.  政府免除正供的對象是墾耕番地 ( 並將之陞科 ) 的漢佃戶, 而不是番業戶
          1. 《私法》 以為帶正供的番地是由漢佃戶陞科納供,漢佃戶承受了正供與番租雙重的負擔,故清廷為 「 公平 」 起見 , 乃先於乾隆三十二年減輕漢佃戶的番租負擔(改為只納民間一般大租額的四成) ,繼而在乾隆三十三年完全免除漢佃戶的正供負擔,改回依民間一般大租額繳納"番大租"
          2. 作者在這篇文章中以許多資料,詳細說明了番業戶報墾番地納供的事實。由納番業戶大租之"漢佃戶" (漢人小租戶)將番地陞科納供的事情,並未見諸史料

            乾隆三十三年番地免稅新法規適用的對象因此是番業主(但不包含過去已經將番地報陞的番業戶) , 而不是漢佃戶 。

            免正供 「 番大租 」 的成立卻不是導因於承擔納稅的義務,而是因為熟番服守隘的勞役,清廷為保障隘番口糧,故給予特別的保護 
    3. 番租的漸進演化?
      筆者想要表白的是 , 《私法》以時序上較後的番租類型來了解其前番租類型做法造成嚴重誤導 。《私法》先入為主的以所謂的「番大租」為成熟完全的番租類型 , 難免視其他番租類型為演化上的較低階段或偏差類型( 變例)
  5. 番租又可分別為大租與口糧?
     《私法》認為,社番均分自收的口糧租與作為番社公費的大租,實質上並無差異,均屬"番大租",並認為番租就是「番大租」。
    1. 小租性質的番祖
      社番口糧租一 一其屬性非僅不似大租,反而接近小租 
      1. 番社均分社地由社番自力開墾,稱為社番 口糧田 ,或私口糧田。社番口糧田墾成後 ,或繼續自耕、 或招現耕佃人佃種抽收小租。招漢人現耕佃人抽收佃租所發生的番租,叫做番小租,又因不用繳納大租(兼免正供)而稱為"大小租"。
      2. 清代臺灣民間大租、 小租的分化
        墾戶上向官府報墾荒地,下招個戶給墾,墾成後陞科正式取得合法的業主權 一 民間慣稱的「田間」 一一 成為收取佃租的 「 業戶」。

        佃戶因墾荒所出的工本,依民間慣例以及與墾戶在給佃批上的約定 , 取得 "田底",得以墾種永佃。
        1. 小租與小租戶
          原向墾戶給墾荒地、取得田底的個戶,在土地利用改善從粗放漸趨密集 ( 例如自旱作轉為水田耕作 )後 ,開始將墾成的田園分租,導致佃戶層分化的現象 。

          為求與佃戶的名稱有所區辨,佃戶所招之佃人又別稱為"現耕"或"現耕佃人"
          招「現耕佃人」耕種的佃戶因為收取"小租"名稱轉變成"小租戶"。
          相對於「小」租,原先佃戶繳納業戶的佃租轉被稱為「大」租,業戶也被稱為「大租戶」

          番小租係由熟番自己將番地墾成田園後取得田底(而不僅只取得可以抽收大租的田面 ) 而發生,在不欲或不能自耕的情形下租給現耕佃人耕作,收取小租。小租額遠較大租為多 ; 承贌熟田的現耕佃人無永佃權,租期為二至三年 。
          社番均分自耕的口糧田,名義上係自墾自耕 , 不用納供,若招現耕佃人耕作取租,依臺例稱為番小租 。因係屬自耕番地,所收的小租內含"大租",故又慣稱 「 大小租 」。
          1. 番小租基本上屬於私約性質,與免正供的「番大租」相較之下,較少受到法令的介入。乾隆三十三年後明令不准番地陞科過戶,杜絕了買斷「番大租」的途徑,然而法令卻沒有規範到番小租的買賣 。

            "大小租"賣掉田底後 ,"退化"成租額低於一般大租的貼納的番租額型(雖然仍得免納正供 ) 
    2. 公租與私租
      1. 岸裡社(其帶管但財政獨立的阿里史社與朴仔籬社二社除外)收取的各種類型番租及租額(依乾隆四十六年當時)如下:
        1. 社課-即貼納的番租
          漢業戶張振萬戶 ( 即漢通事張達京 ) 與六館業戶 一一 透過割地換水的方式,貼納岸裡社番租,贌買岸裡社西南勢與南勢番地 ,立戶報墾陞科。

          番社藉餉取貼所收的社課除公用(如充作守隘口糧)外,也均分作為社番口糧之用 ,因此易與社番 口糧田所收的大小租 ( 也通稱口糧 ) 相混
        2. 大租
          岸裡社的大租依報墾年代的先後,分為納正供的番大租與免納正供的「番大租 」 兩頓型。
        3. 社番口糧租
          社番各自分配得到的私口糧田所抽收的"大小租",構成岸裡社番租的主要部份 
    3. 分類的盲點
      劉銘傳將原屬小租性質的口糧租視同大租一例處理 ,滅四留六 , 已先造成損害 , 殖民政府的土地調查局並未發覺與校正這個誤解 , 以致繼續造成熟番利益的損失 
  6. 結論
    日本學者有意無意的把番租的各類型硬套進漢大租裡(日治初期的土地調查將漢人的大租與番租通稱為"民大租" ) ,再基於清朝番地一向不納正供的假說( 一個誤解 ) ,把真正性質上與漢大租相同的番大租視為變例 。

    之所以會有這樣的結果,多少與當時日本學者過度仰賴既有熟習的歐陸法概念,以及遷就行政與統治上的便宜行事有所關聯。
  7. 附錄:清代臺灣大小租業之性質與成因
    1. 大小租制源自清初的墾戶/佃戶制 。在清初臺灣特定的社會經濟情境下 ,清廷仰重設庄報墾的"墾戶"( 墾成田園陞科後則正式成為"業戶")為開墾的領導者、徵稅的中介者以及安定社會秩序的支柱 ,故承認其社會地位。
      並在法律上保障其對於墾區土地的支配,以"業主"( 或"田主") 稱呼之

      雖然官方以墾戶為業主,但因佃戶對於土地的支配日強 , 民問實際通行的土地租佃慣習於乾隆年間已轉變為一田二主的大小租多重地權

      根據戴炎輝的說法 , 至嘉慶初期 (十九世紀初)時,業戶 ( 大租戶 ) 已喪失對於土地的實際支配 ( 無法再過問土地的使用 、收益與處分 ) ,田面的內容僅只剩下"收租權"
    2. 但對臺灣地方官、(舊償調查會及土地調查局 )日本法學家以及戴炎輝而言,十九世紀,臺灣真正的 「 田主 」 是小租戶 ,大租戶已喪失其「業主權 」。 
    3. 日治初期的土地調查 「 採用清朝既有的業主觀念 ,以對土地擁有最大實權者為業主,以業主權稱呼其權利,確認小租戶為業主,土地調查後隨即改革地稅制度, 買銷並廢除大租業,從而確立了現代所有權制 

覺得這篇文章想要討論什麼?
作者認為日治時期學者對番租的分類有誤,因此提出修正

我覺得這篇文章有哪些重點?或是我的心得?
其實我是覺得有點霧煞煞,可能是第一次看,一堆文獻跟概念,感覺先看其他類似的資料,再回過頭來看可能好一點。

〈翻譯、詮釋與不可共量性-方萬全〉筆記


  1. 翻譯、詮釋與「溝通崩潰」(communication breakdown)
    1. 孔恩認為,在兩個不同理論下的人,會面臨所謂的溝通崩潰,但仍然有可以做為溝通基礎的共同點,並藉此翻譯、了解另一個理論世界
      相較於建構一個中立性系統的途徑,孔恩主張以共通點-神經結構、過去經驗、日常語言、科學世界與語言,為基礎進行翻譯

      其在後記-1969中提到"他們一般的神經結構-不管其運作規劃如何不同-也是相同的...此外他們也有相同的過去...有了這麼多的共通點,他們應該可找出不少關於他們之間差異的情形"
    2. 特別指出,孔恩1969年的後記,將翻譯與詮釋混合為一,但在1983年的CCC,則將兩者嚴格區分,並作為反駁批評"不可共量性"的武器。
    3. 孔恩認為解決溝通崩潰的方式
      如果在同樣刺激之下,我與不同社群的人卻有不同的語言反應,則我們要試著去了解對方到底"會看見什麼、說什麼"(後記-1969)

      最後的結果是
      每一個人都學會了將別人的理論及其結果譯成自己的語言,同時也能以自己的語言來描述那個理論所談到的世界。這正是科學史家在處理過時的科學理論所作的
      (後記-1969)
    4. 提問
      透過翻譯,以自己的語言描述另一個理論世界,那孔恩所謂的不同共量性,又該怎麼說呢?(我想,這裡的意思應該是-翻譯過後,就沒有所謂的不可共量嗎?)
  2. 孔恩看翻譯與詮釋
    1. CCC中,孔恩對翻譯與詮釋的看法
      1. 翻譯
        1. 翻譯工作由懂得兩種語言的人為之
        2. 用來翻譯的語言在翻譯工作之前便已存在
        3. 被譯的原文與譯文必須大體上有相同的內容
      2. 詮釋
        1. 從事詮釋工作者起初只可懂一種語言
        2. 如果詮釋者成功地詮釋語言L,則他便學會了那個語言
        3. 詮釋者成功地加以詮釋的語言L,不一定能譯入詮釋者用以詮釋工作的語言
        4. 利用詮釋的方式,詮釋者可以找出別的理論中無法用詮釋者的語言加以翻譯的字或詞
      3. 兩者相較,成功的翻譯工作所要滿足的條件,要遠比成功的詮釋工作所要滿足的條件來得多
        所以,孔恩在後記1969談到的翻譯,實際上應該是"詮釋"才對
        至於孔恩所謂的不可共量,參考CCC中土著的例子,應為"如果A理論或語言無法完全譯為B理論或語言,那麼從B理論或使用B理論的角度來看,A理論是不可共量的"
  3. 孔恩看戴維森對「不可共量性」之說的批評
    1. 孔恩對於不可同量的兩類批評的描述
      1. 兩個不可共量的理論之間無法比較與作差異,但是當我們談論兩者的差異時,不就先預設了兩者之間共同的基礎嗎?
        這不是相互矛盾嗎?
      2. 一邊述說AB兩個理論的不可共量,一邊用A理論的語言重建B理論,在這種情況下,不可共量是什麼意思呢?
      3. 孔恩認為戴維森的批評包含上面兩類的批評
        此文將以第二個批評為重點
    2. 依照孔恩對翻譯與詮釋的分類
      B理論也許無法用A理論的語言成功地翻譯,但還是可以透過詮釋的方式,來加以了解B理論,不可共量指的是"翻譯的成功與否",而非"詮釋的成功與否"
      在這個翻譯與詮釋的分類上,第二類的批評是失敗的。
  4. 戴維森的詮釋理論(theory of interpretation)
    此章討論戴維森的詮釋是否同於孔恩的詮釋
    1. 戴維森的詮釋
      其認為詮釋之目的在於達到了解一個詮釋者原先並不懂的語言
      1. 徹底詮釋 radical interpretation
        指的是詮釋者在完全不懂A語言的情形下,既不借助字典等工具,又不求助於懂得A的人,去從事對A的詮釋工作

        徹底詮釋不但不能假定詮釋者開始其詮釋工作時,對語言L有任何直接或間接的瞭解,詮釋者也不能假定他在一開始就能知道使用L的人內心在想甚麼等的詳情。
        在這些假定之下,應該如何進行詮釋工作,這個問題牽涉到什麼資料以及甚麼觀念可被用來進行詮釋。
        戴維森的回答是"使用A語言的人,所持有視(A的語句S)為真的態度"
    2. 戴維森的詮釋同於孔恩的詮釋
      1. 在孔恩所說的翻譯失敗之後,戴維森會以他的詮釋方法來瞭解那個無法成功地或者完全地加以翻譯地語言
      2. 戴維森會在必要時會以擴充用來詮釋的語言的方式,來進行詮釋工作
      3. 指出戴維森允許在詮釋中用到類似蒯因提到的,可能加諸於分析性假設的附加說明
  5. 戴維森看孔恩所謂的翻譯
    對蒯因和戴維森而言,孔恩所說的翻譯,其實是戴維森所說的詮釋的特例而已
    因為戴維森同蒯因一般,認為翻譯這個觀念需透過詮釋的概念來說明,也認為詮釋是一個比翻譯還要基本的觀念
  6. 戴維森對孔恩的批評究竟是什麼?
    1. 戴維森的批評
      1. 對體系與內容的二元論持反對的立場
      2. 認為孔恩持有體系與內容的二元論
    2. 孔恩認識到的兩類批評
      1. 只要語言A能用語言B來加以詮釋,則A與B之間無不可共量的情形
      2. 認為只要過去的理論無法用現代的語言來加以翻譯,則我們無法用現代的語言來介紹或重建
    3. 結論
      孔恩並沒有真正認識到戴維森的批評,以及於反駁失敗
覺得這篇文章想要討論什麼?
探討孔恩針對戴維森提出的批評所做的反駁,並說明孔恩並沒有掌握到戴維森批評的重點以及孔恩並未能成功反駁

我覺得這篇文章有哪些重點?或是我的心得?
我覺得有很多意義理論的地方不太懂,應該說,我應該把語言哲學的東西看一看,再回過頭來重看這篇文章,不然都霧煞煞

2019年12月20日 星期五

《經濟學原理 第九章-溫明忠》筆記

溫明忠著,《經濟學原理》,新北市 : 前程文化,2013

第九章 資訊與經濟

  1. 資訊不對稱與資訊不完整
    1. 資訊的重要性
      消費者與生產廠商都是依據預期的成本-效益分析做決策
      1. 資訊不完整的影響
        如對產品瞭解不盡然,導致的虧損
      2. 資訊不對稱的影響
        擁有更多資訊的一方,在交易上較占優勢
      3. 資訊不對稱或不完整所產生的成本
        1. 搜尋成本
          取得有關產品品質、項目所花的成本,是尋找有利交易機會的成本
        2. 談判成本
          因買賣談判而產生的成本,談判成本包括討價還價有關的一切成本
        3. 執行成本
          保證對方履行契約義務的成本
  2. 代理問題
    代理人未提供充分資訊給委託人,或是對委託人有意隱瞞某些重要的資訊,因而衍生出資訊不對稱問題,使得市場價格機能扭曲,導致市場失靈。
  3. 經紀人的角色
    1. 經紀人的意義
      其意義在於組織市場、提供可能交易機會的資訊、促進交易的完成。
      經紀人(或稱中間商、仲介)的存在可以降低交易成本
  4. 資訊不對稱實例
    1. 逆向選擇與道德危險的不同
      1. 逆向選擇
        交易的同時,一方擁有較另一方更多的資訊,因而使得對方處於不利的地位。
      2. 道德危險
        交易完成後,交易的一方改變其作法,使得另一方處於不利的地位
        如故意受傷來賺保費
    2. 逆向選擇與"檸檬"市場
      逆向選擇會降低交易量與市場經濟效率,導致市場失靈
    3. 降低汽車市場的逆向選擇
      以汽車市場為例,新車會以保證書,舊車會以自己的聲譽作為擔保,獲取買主的信任,來降低逆向選擇
    4. 保險市場的資訊不對稱與逆向選擇
      要保人對自己的狀況,比保險公司來得清楚。
      因此,保險公司會要求要保人提出自身的資訊,另外團體保險也可以避免逆向選擇
    5. 降低保險市場的道德危險
      保險公司會以共保或是扣除額的做法來降低,使得投保者不會因為有保險就恣意妄為。
      1. 扣除額
        某一金額內的損失,保險公司不負責理賠
      2. 共保
        保險公司與要保人共同負擔損失
  5. 金融市場的逆向選擇與道德危險
    1. 降低金融市場的逆向選擇與道德危險
      我國會設立證期會,負責監督管理各上市公司,並且規定上市公司要有公開說明會,來降低逆向選擇與道德危險。
  6. 勞動市場的逆向選擇與道德危險
    1. 效率工資
      將工資定在均衡工資以上,使工人少偷懶
    2. 年功俸
      對於資深者給予較高的薪資或更好的福利,跟效率工資的目的相同。
    3. 利潤分享
      員工可以分享公司獲利的結果
  7. 生活中的風險
    1. 個人對風險的態度
      1. 關心報酬的大小
        1. 公平賭局,平均貨幣報酬為0
        2. 不利賭局,平均貨幣報酬為負
        3. 有利賭局,平均貨幣報酬為正
      2. 關心風險(亦即報酬變動幅度)的大小
      3. 風險趨避、風險中立與風險愛好
        1. 風險中立
          指參與賭局者只關心平均報酬是否為正
        2. 風險趨避
          指參與賭局者會拒絕一個公平賭局,亦即拒絕平均報酬為零的賭局
        3. 風險愛好
          指參與賭局者會參與即使是不利的賭局,亦即平均報酬為負時,也願意加入
    2. 例:保險與風險
      1. 不參加保險的情形
        500.000的房子,10%的機率損毀,平均而言,你擁有房子的價值為450.000
      2. 參加保險的情形
        保費100.000,平均而言,你擁有房子的價值為400.000
      3. 兩相比較
        因為平均報酬為負,因此只有風險趨避者會接受此種保險
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  1. For each good listed below, discuss whether the good is likely to entail either an external cost or an external benefit. In addition, discuss whether the private market is likely to provide more or less than the socially optimal quantity of the good.
    1. Vaccinations
      A:
      Vaccinations entail benefits to people other than those who are vaccinated because people who are vaccinated against infectious diseases are less likely to contract those diseases and pass them on to others. Private markets tend to provide less than the socially optimal quantity of goods that entail external benefits.
    2. Cigarettes
      A:
      Cigarettes entail costs to people other than those who smoke because second-hand smoke has been shown to be harmful to people's health. Private markets tend to provide more than the socially optimal quantity of goods than entail external costs
    3. Antibiotics
      A:
      On one hand, antibiotics entail an external benefit because a person who takes an antibiotic will be less likely to pass his or her bacterial infection on to others.  One the other hand, antibiotics also entail an external cost because bacteria often develop resistance to antibiotics and become less effective as more people use them.  Whether private markets provide more or less than the socially optimal quantity of antibiotics depends on whether you think their external costs outweigh their external benefits
  2. Suppose the law says that Jones may emit smoke from his factory unless he gets permission from Smith, who lives downwind. If the relevant costs and benefits of filtering the smoke from Jones’s production process are as shown in the following table, and if Jones and Smith can negotiate with one another at no cost, will Jones emit smoke?

    A:
    The most efficient outcome is for Jones to emit smoke, because the total daily surplus in that case will be $600, compared to only $580 when Jones does not emit smoke. Since Smith has the right to insist that Jones emit no smoke, Jones will have to compensate Smith for not exercising that right. If Jones pays Smith $30, each will be $10 better off than if Smith had allowed Jones not to emit smoke.
  3. John and Karl can live together in a two-bedroom apartment for $500 per month, or each can rent a single-bedroom apartment for $350 per month. Aside from the rent, the two would be indifferent between living together and living separately, except for one problem: John leaves dirty dishes in the sink every night. Karl would be willing to pay up to $175 per month to avoid John’s dirty dishes. John, for his part, would be willing to pay up to $225 to be able to continue his sloppiness.
    1. Should John and Karl live together? If they do, will there be dirty dishes in the sink? Explain.
      A:
      John and Karl stand to save $200 per month in rental payments by living together since their total rent is $500 when they share and $700 when they each rent their own apartment. The question is whether this benefit justifies their living together despite John's objectionable habit of leaving his dirty dishes in the sink. The lowest-cost accommodation to the dirty-dish problem is for John to leave his dirty dishes in the sink. In this case, the maximum monthly rent Karl would be willing to pay to share an apartment with John is $350 - $175 = $175 per month. This amount would leave John with a remaining monthly rent bill of $325, which generates a social surplus of $25 per month. If John splits this surplus evenly with Karl, John ends up paying $337.50 per month and Karl pays $162.50 per month. Both John and Karl will therefore be better off living together
    2. If John would be willing to pay up to $30 per month to avoid giving up his privacy by sharing quarters with Karl? Should John and Karl live together?
      A:
      Adding an additional $30 per month to the cost of the shared living arrangement makes the total cost of sharing $205 per month. Because that amount exceeds the $200 per month that John and Karl save by living together, they should live separately
  4. Barton and Statler are neighbors in an apartment complex in downtown Manhattan. Barton is a concert pianist, and Statler is a poet working on an epic poem. Barton rehearses his concert pieces on the baby grand piano in his front room, which is directly above Statler’s study. The following matrix shows the monthly payoffs to Barton and Statler when Barton’s front room is and is not soundproofed. The soundproofing will be effective only if it is installed in Barton’s apartment.
    1. If Barton has the legal right to make any amount of noise he wants and he and Statler can negotiate with one another at no cost, will Barton install and maintain soundproofing? Explain. Is his choice socially efficient?
      A:
      Barton will not install and maintain soundproofing. Barton’s monthly payoff without soundproofing is $50 more than with it, so his natural inclination is not to install soundproofing. Statler would have to pay Barton at least $50 to induce Barton to install soundproofing, but since soundproofing is worth only $40 per month to Statler, Statler will not be willing to pay Barton $50 to install the soundproofing. Since the joint payoff is $230 without soundproofing and $220 with it, their choice to not install soundproofing is socially efficient
    2. If Statler has the legal right to peace and quiet and can negotiate with Barton at no cost, will Barton install and maintain soundproofing? Explain. Is his choice socially efficient?
      A:
      Barton will not install soundproofing and this choice is socially efficient. In this case, he will pay Statler $40 per month to compensate him for the noise he makes while practicing
    3. Does the attainment of an efficient outcome depend on whether Barton has the legal right to make noise, or Statler the legal right to peace and quiet?
      A:
      Either way, the efficient outcome (no soundproofing) is reached. The difference is that when Barton has the right to make as much noise as he wants, his monthly payoff is higher than when Statler has the legal right to peace and quiet. Similarly, Statler’s monthly payoff is higher when he has the legal right to peace and quiet than when Barton has the right to make as much noise as he wants
  5. Refer to Problem 4. Barton decides to buy a full-sized grand piano. The new payoff matrix is as follows:
    1. If Statler has the legal right to peace and quiet and Barton and Statler can negotiate at no cost, will Barton install and maintain soundproofing? Explain. Is this outcome socially efficient?
      A:
      Barton will now install and maintain soundproofing, because doing so is cheaper than compensating Statler at a rate of $60 per month for the noise nuisance. This outcome is socially efficient
    2. Suppose that Barton has the legal right to make as much noise as he likes and that negotiating an agreement with Barton costs $15 per month. Will Barton install and maintain soundproofing? Explain. Is this outcome socially efficient?
      A:
      Barton will not install soundproofing in this case. The noise costs Statler $60 per month, so in the absence of transaction costs Statler would be willing to pay up to that amount to induce Barton to install soundproofing. However, if Statler must also pay a $15 fee for this transaction, it is not worthwhile. Thus, no soundproofing will be installed, and the outcome will be socially inefficient
    3. Suppose Statler has the legal right to peace and quiet, and it costs $15 per month for Statler and Barton to negotiate any agreement. (Compensation for noise damage can be paid without incurring negotiation cost.) Will Barton install and maintain soundproofing? Is this outcome socially efficient?
      A:
      If Statler has the legal right to peace, then installing and maintaining the soundproofing will be cheaper for Barton than to pay Statler $60 per month compensation for noise damage. In this case, the outcome is socially efficient
    4. Why does the attainment of a socially efficient outcome now depend on whether Barton has the legal right to make noise?
      A:
      When negotiation is costly, the Coase theorem does not guarantee that private parties will arrive at the socially efficient outcome. Thus, the attainment of the socially efficient outcome will depend on who has the legal right to perform the activity that generates the externality
  6. Determine whether the following statements are are true or false, and briefly explain why:
    1. A given total emission reduction in a polluting industry will be achieved at the lowest possible total cost when the cost of the last unit of pollution curbed is equal for each firm in the industry
      A:

      [Note: This question should really be moved to Chapter 10. Your students may have difficulty answering the question within the context of this chapter.]

      True. Suppose that the marginal cost of emission reduction for plant A is higher than that in plant B. That means that we can reduce the total cost by allowing plant A to pollute more (since the marginal cost will fall) and ordering plant B to reduce its emissions further (since the marginal cost will rise.) We can do this until the marginal cost of emission reduction is the same at the two plants
    2. In an attempt to lower their costs of production, firms sometimes succeed merely in shifting costs to outsiders
      A:
      True. An example is the excessive use of pesticides on crops. This activity reduces the amount of insect damage to crops, and thus lowers the farmer’s production cost. However, the pesticide runoff pollutes waterways, imposing a negative externality on recreational users of those waters
  7. A village has six residents, each of whom has accumulated savings of $100. Each villager can use this money either to buy a government bond that pays 15 percent interest per year or to buy a year-old llama, send it onto the commons to graze, and sell it after 1 year. The price the villager gets for the 2-year-old llama depends on the quality of the fleece it grows while grazing on the commons. That in turn depends on the animal’s access to grazing, which depends on the number of llamas sent to the commons, as shown in the following table:

    The villagers make their investment decisions one after another, and their decisions are public.

    1. If each villager decides individually how to invest, how many llamas will be sent onto the commons, and what will be the resulting net village income?
      A:
      The table below shows the total village income from grazing llamas as well as the marginal village income from the activity:

      If each villager decides individually how to invest, then the villagers will continue to send llamas onto the commons as long as the income each earns from doing so is greater than $15, the amount a villager could earn from buying a government bond. Thus, from the information in the "Income per llama" column in the table above, we can see that 3 llamas will be sent onto the commons. The resulting net village income will be $48 from the llamas plus $45 from government bonds, or $93
    2. What is the socially optimal number of llamas for this village? Why is that different from the actual number? What would net village income be if the socially optimal number of llamas were sent onto the commons?
      A:
      A llama should be sent onto the commons if and only if its marginal contribution to total village income is greater than $15, the amount a villager could earn from buying a government bond. Thus, the socially optimal number of llamas on the commons is 1. When the villagers decide individually how to invest, they send 3 llamas, rather than just 1, because in deciding whether or not to send a llama each villager ignores the negative impact of his or her llama’s presence on the other llamas’ fleece quality. Total village income with 1 llama on the commons is $22 from the llama plus $75 from government bonds, or $97 in total
    3. The village committee votes to auction the right to graze llamas on the commons to the highest bidder. Assuming villagers can both borrow and lend at 15 percent annual interest, how much will the right sell for at auction? How will the new owner use the right, and what will be the resulting village income?
      A:
      If a single villager could control access to the commons, she would send only a single llama onto the commons, which she could sell after one year for $22 more than she paid for it.  If the land were free, the owner would thus earn $22 per year by raising one llama per year on it, or $7 more than she would have earned had she used her $100 to buy a bond.  The price of the land will be bid up until owning the land is no better than putting the same amount in the bank at 15 percent interest.  That price is the amount of money, X, that would yield $7 per year if deposited at 15 percent interest:  0.15X = $7, or X = $46.67.  The new owner will graze one llama. Total village income will be the same as in part b
  8. Suppose that Lance and Jan are the two top cyclists in the world. Both are scheduled to compete in an upcoming cycling competition in which the winner will receive $100,000 in prize money while the rest of the competitors receive nothing. Both cyclists are very talented, but they can increase their chances of winning by doping (i.e., taking performance-enhancing drugs). The cost to each of doping is $25,000 (this includes not just the cost of the drugs, but also both the health costs and the expected damage to their reputations if they are caught). Each has a 50 percent chance of winning the race either if both of them dope or if neither of them dopes. On the other hand, if only one of them dopes, then the one who dopes will win the race for sure.
    1. Discuss whether this situation involves a positional externality.
      A:
      Since each cyclist's payoff depends on his relative performance, any step either takes to improve his performance will necessarily lower the expected payoff of the other
    2. Write down the expected payoff matrix for this game, assuming that both Lance and Jan make their decisions simultaneously.
      A:
      See below. To see how the numbers in the table were calculated, note that, for example, when both Lance and Jan dope, each has a 50 percent chance of winning, so both Lance and Jan have an expected payoff of (0.50 × $100,000) - $25,000, or $25,000
    3. Will the outcome of this game be socially optimal? Explain.
      A:
      Note that this game is a prisoner's dilemma. For both Jan and Lance, doping is a dominant strategy. Yet when both dope, each gets an expected payoff of only $25,000. Each would have had an expected payoff of $50,000 if they both did not dope

〈《清代的班兵與移民:澎湖的個案研究-余光弘》許雪姬-書評〉筆記


  1. 前言
    作者對澎湖籍貫與班兵的關係,著力很深,並對澎湖大部分村莊進行族譜、姓氏等調查,是一本歷史人類學的著作。
  2. 內容介紹
    1. 首章
      作者先研究澎湖移民與班兵間對應的關係,然後將所得結果用來檢證臺灣的情況
    2. 第二章
      作者參考方志資料及今人研究的成果,說明澎湖的歷史發展,尤偏重人口移入的問題,及在各島上分佈的狀況。
    3. 第三章
      作者利用前人研究班兵、綠營的成果,描述班兵制建立的原因,以及最初澎湖班兵的籍貫及其佈防
    4. 第四章
      作者以許多資料,得出在萬歷十三年(1585)已有許多泉人逐漸移入澎湖群島,在適於泊船的灣澳形成零星的村落
      到咸豐前後,澎湖已有20各島都已建立村落
    5. 第五章
      從班兵籍貫上的安排,能看出澎湖移民的祖籍分布影響了班兵的部屬。
    6. 第六章
      同籍班兵會包庇同籍的偷渡客,也因此移民會不同籍兵的分布有所差別。
    7. 結論
      作者分別探討皇帝、施琅、在台官員、班兵與移民這五種不同行為者的互動關係,指出同級班兵的互相援引,導致兵民沆瀣一氣,從而促使清廷以不同籍貫的班兵駐守,儘管杜絕了兵民相護,卻產生新的分類籍貫意識。
  3. 評論
    1. 以往學者對形成清代漢人祖籍分布的現象即泉海、漳中、粵山的形成,有以下三種看法:
      1. 閩人先來,客家人後到
      2. 分類械鬥引起民變後,為自身安全,同籍人相鄰而居以求自衛
      3. 原鄉生活方式,決定來台之定居地
      4. 作者提出班兵的籍貫,兵民相護的原因,影響了移民定居地的選擇
    2. 許雪姬認為作者在結論獨獨未討論在台官員,以及未對班兵系統中較積極賣放的汛塘兵進行分析,以及金門水師兵的調派應與戰鬥力有關,而非作者說的移民關係。
      還有,作者解釋漳、泉、粵時,沒有充分解釋泉海、漳山的問題,並建議作者能多用臺灣本島族譜的資料,也許能有更好的解釋。
  4. 後記
    作者以班兵的籍貫來解釋清代漢人祖籍分布的特徵
    許雪姬認為,此書未能從制度方面加以分析,使得結論難以信服。

我覺得這篇文章有哪些重點?或是我的心得?

書評作者先是對每一章介紹其重點,接著提出其可能的缺漏。個人是第一次看書評寫筆記,感覺有很多值得參考的地方,像是寫內容介紹的安排、評論的書寫之類的。
不過我也沒有看過原書,也不知道批評得有沒有道理

2019年12月19日 星期四

〈清代臺灣分類械鬥發生的原因-林偉盛〉筆記


  1. 分類械鬥的名詞
    1. 日本人將分類械鬥與一般械鬥相混,並認為與民族性有關
    2. 戰後學者則稱呼其為民間械鬥,忽略其分類械鬥的特殊性
    3. 分類械鬥一詞出於柴大紀上奏,直到嘉慶年間才成為官方用語
  2. 分類械鬥的發生原因
    1. 政治因素
      1. 分化說的再思考
        1. 張菼認為清廷袒粵以制閩,而引起閩粵分類械鬥,後再分化漳泉,造成臺灣長期的的分類械鬥。
          1. 分化閩粵
            以朱一貴事件來說,是漳籍的朱一貴與粵籍的杜君英有利益糾紛才引起鬥爭,而非清廷分化
          2. 分化漳泉
            以台中中部第一個大規模的漳泉分裂械鬥-謝笑案來說,是因賭博而起,漳泉兩籍各自聚眾
        2. 陳孔立認為"清廷只是在鎮壓起義的過程中,利用了不同祖籍居民之間的矛盾,而不是"為防止民變"而一貫採用分化政策"
          1. 以乾隆六十周年陳周全事件時的上諭,就能發現朝廷學會利用台灣社會分類,來使各籍互相牽制
            如其中說到"況臺灣地方分漳、泉、粵三庄"伊等類聚羣分,遇有事端,彼此轉得互為牽制
        3. 作者認為張菼提到的分化說是有理的,只是沒有說清楚,分類械鬥是台灣自身發展而成,清廷沒有特地去分化,只是利用了這個現況。
      2. 行政控制鬆散
        清廷在行政上,僅依明鄭基礎,將台灣分為一府三縣。
        造成行政區管轄遙遠,無法兼顧,加上維護治安的班兵無法有效發揮功能,人民只能依地方自衛組織,採自救方式互相殺焚,是以械鬥的形式不斷的重複出現。
        如同道光年間閩督孫爾準說"嘉慶年及本年(道光六年),械鬥皆起於彰化、淡水,由郡城派兵將往彈壓,相距既遠,每致後時"
      3. 班兵問題
        班兵在台灣的職責,除了作戰外,平時還須兼差役、防汛和巡防等任務,是維護台灣治安的主要武力。
        而清廷因政治與經濟上的理由,採取班兵輪調制,由福建戍守台灣,產生了以下兩個問題。
        1. 就班兵戰力來說
          其先天與後天上的弊端,使得班兵根本無法負起作戰與維護治安的功能。每有亂事,只得由內地調派兵援
          如朱一貴事件時,府城編制6000,實際只能動員1500
        2. 班兵的分類問題
          戍台班兵大半以漳、泉府為主,各自袒護同籍,使兩造更肆無忌憚地進行分類械鬥。
    2. 社會因素
      臺灣的移民為了自身的安全,乃依其語言、籍冠、甚至後來的職業為區分,組織共同的生命共同體。
      1. 南部
        最早形成地緣分明的村落應該是南部下淡水溪一帶的閩粵村落
        從明鄭時期的"溪南土番居焉",粵人康熙35年(1696)開始來台,到鳳山縣志記載的"淡水溪以南,則番漢耕居,客人尤夥",能看到地緣關係結夥的程度是很大的。
      2. 中部
        幾個早入彰化開墾的墾戶,如施長齡、楊志申等泉人,在彰化平原具有較多的優勢
        1. 鄭光策的各籍分布報告
          按全台大勢,漳、泉之居民十分之六七,廣民在三四之間。以南北論,則北淡水、南鳳山多廣民,諸、彰二邑多閩戶;以內外論,則近海屬漳、泉之土著,近山多廣東之客莊。

          能看出漳泉各依地緣,各自分莊交錯
      3. 淡水廳
        淡水廳地區屬西南海岸線開發較晚的地區,其發生械鬥時間亦較晚,而且各地因人民籍貫不同,械鬥模式亦不盡相同,大約竹塹以南屬泉粵械鬥較多,竹塹以北到桃園一代以漳粵械鬥較多,台北盆地及其周圍則以漳泉械鬥為主。

        至於噶瑪蘭一帶,雖早期是三籍合墾,但我們由其各有頭人、分地盤開墾來看,他們亦是依籍貫劃分地盤,甚至在噶瑪蘭到西部平原依籍貫分三條路。
      4. 清廷以分類的觀念來處理民變,以各籍處理各籍的方式來避免械鬥擴大,因此民變會引起械鬥,而械鬥不會引起民變。
        如閩浙總督孫爾準以"以粵人入捕粵人,閩人捕閩法,化其分類之見",來避免加深分類,並求更好的壓制械鬥。
    3. 經濟因素
      1. 田土、水利、地租
        在既有的各籍分類上,水利、田土、地租之爭實為分類械鬥的催化劑
        1. 田土
          初墾時,各籍相離甚遠,後來地利日墾、田土相錯,乃因田土水利爭執而起衝突。
          如下淡水地區是閩粵較早接觸的地區,據研究,客庄受閩人進逼,只得在河水容易氾濫成災的地方建村,並向番社發展,因此雙方形成仇視。
        2. 水利
          台灣溪流由西向東流入海,在源頭之人常阻斷水源,引起下流居民的仇視。
        3. 地租
          在清領時期的墾戶與佃戶關係中,佃戶可以將土地典、胎、轉贌,承耕者亦再度轉讓,形成大租戶、小租戶、一田二主、三主的情況。
          這種混亂的土地制度,促使仇視發生。
          如咸豐年間林本源與陳福成鬥案,是因欠租起佃引起漳泉械鬥
          1. 典(沒有所有權 而是有使用和收益之權)
            胎(抵押權)
            轉贌(轉賣)
      2. 其他經濟因素
        比較城市化的地方,人民對田地的依賴沒有那麼重,反而是生活職業上的依存更重,因此分類械鬥的形式有所不同。
        如嘉慶20年(1815)台灣縣府城大西門外的挑夫械鬥,因為劃分地盤、包攬挑貨工作,互爭利益而引起的分類械鬥。

        顯示經濟因素不但是引起分類械鬥的重要因素,而且不同模式、地方的經濟衝突,亦產生不同的分類械鬥模式。
  3. 結論
    清代台灣分類械鬥,是基於台灣社會自然成長中帶來的閩、粵仇視,加上官方不思考如何解決問題,反而人為的製造雙方仇視,在此自然及人為的因素,分類械鬥乃長期存於清代的台灣社會。
覺得這篇文章想要討論什麼?
作者試著指出分類械鬥發生的原因,並分政治、社會、經濟三個層面來論述。

我覺得這篇文章有哪些重點?或是我的心得?
我自己倒是好奇所有的移民社會都會發生這種大規模的械鬥嗎?如果要安撫這種械鬥,應該如何處理呢?
另外,這篇只處理漢人之間的問題,那原住民也會跟械鬥扯上關係嗎?傳教士呢?

2019年12月15日 星期日

電影心得 日落真相

  1. 請寫下你所選的電影名稱、出品年、導演與主要演員的相關資料。
    《日落真相》,2012年由美國和日本的製片公司聯合製作的電影
    由彼得·韋柏執導
    馬修·福克斯飾邦納·費勒斯一星准將(奉命調查昭和天皇戰爭責任的美軍軍官)
    初音映莉子飾島田綾(費勒斯的女朋友)
    湯米·李·瓊斯飾道格拉斯·麥克阿瑟五星上將(駐日盟軍總司令)
  2. 請寫出電影中,你認為有意義的三句台詞,並說明理由。
    1. (2:58-3:29)天皇僅在一個月前,以我們無法想像的方式召集了民眾,他命令民眾投降,卻未使用投降一詞,他只是單純的命令他們"忍受一切"
      -----------------------
      最開始的一段台詞,同時也指出此次接管日本的應考量的重心。這段台詞揭示了天皇的權威以及其面對戰敗的態度,一個天皇依舊保留強大傳統權威的國度,以及其依然忠誠的臣民,對於即將來接管的美國而言,如何安撫日本子民以及面對天皇傳統權威,成為其思考的重心。
    2. (26:30-27:19)你炸毀了我們兩座城市......我們都是罪人...是的,我們佔領了中國的領土,但英國、葡萄牙不都領先於我們嗎?....如果武力征服是一項國際罪行,那誰來給英國、法國、荷蘭和美國領導人定罪呢?沒有人
      --------------------------
      這是日本二戰後,常用以辯護自身罪行的一段論述,也是費勒斯搜查過程中,最先遇到的辯護論述,但後續的搜查方向,卻逐漸轉往日本文化本質的探究。
      這段論述沒有繼續往下深究,讓人不免感到遺憾,不知道是不是導演
    3. (38:48)他知道美國人民希望看到天皇被絞死....如果天皇被絞死,會發生什麼嗎?整個日本會推翻我們,我可不會輕易做出決定...我知道,但必須履行正義,復仇和正義是兩回事
      -----------------------
      這段話我想是麥克阿瑟斯思考日本政策的一個重點,為了之後的總統大選,麥克阿瑟必須在日本做出一番政績,因此,穩定與和平接管日本是麥克阿瑟最核心的主張,為此,保護以及與天皇合作是必要的。
    4. (50:44)上校,你永遠不會明白。完全現身於一種價值的感覺
    5. (52:06-52:17)我想問下天皇在日本士兵心中,扮演甚麼樣的角色
      高於一切,對陛下的責任感就...
    6. (1:03:54)你理解獻身,就能理解日本
    7. (1:04:19-1:05:15)
      有兩個日本詞語是你應該了解的,表象、本質。
      當你看日本,會發現這是亞洲所有國家中最現代與西方化的,但這是表象,膚淺的表面。那本質呢?他是這個國家真實的心跳,已逾兩千年之久,他與西方無關,日本維持著忠誠與服從的武士道信條。
      -------------------
      我認為這句話揭示了日治維新後的日本,在脫亞入歐的表象背後,依然殘留著神道教與天皇的信仰與權威。而這種傳統是明治維新後,天皇所建構的一套信仰與意識形態,將過去的歷史與信仰作為近代政治體系的基礎,一種以天皇為核心的體制。
  3. 請說明選擇此部電影的理由,並簡述電影的內容。
      這部電影的背景是二戰後美國暫管日本,進行戰後罪犯調查的時期。從費勒斯准將的視角,一個受麥克阿瑟命令,負責調查天皇戰爭責任的准將;一個有著日本女友、曾做過日本相關研究的日本通,來看待戰後美國在天皇議題上的抉擇。
      費勒斯在調查天皇責任的過程中,透過與日本官員的談話,漸漸拉出天皇在日本文化中的地位,同時也漸漸逼近天皇在戰爭中扮演的角色。但是,正因為天皇的角色如此之重大,是要為了公義而進行審判,抑或是為了能和平接管日本,而隱蔽不談。最後費勒斯選擇了隱藏天皇罪責,使麥克阿瑟能協同裕仁天皇,進行戰後的日本改革。
  4. 看完此部電影,你找過那些參考資料?
    如果是網路資料,請填入網路連結,並對網路上的影評等簡單評價。
    1. 賀伯特.畢克斯(Herbert P. Bix)著,林添貴譯,《昭和天皇:裕仁與近代日本的形成》,新北市:遠足文化,2017
      這本書重新審視二戰期間,裕仁天皇所扮演的角色,並批評麥克阿瑟為天皇卸責的作為。作者認為正是因為戰後對於日本罪責的模糊處理,以及天皇體制的殘留,裕仁的不遜位與不認罪,使得現今仍殘留許多有爭議的議題。
    2. http://i-pk.tw/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=11244
      這篇網路影評認為,電影中歷史與愛情的劇情比例,使得這部電影作為一部歷史片,顯得不夠完整,作為一部愛情片,又顯得男女主角間的情感鋪成不夠。
      個人認為,這部應做歷史劇情片來看待。相對於男女主角之間的情感描繪,導演似乎還是將主軸放在日本文化的特殊性上,不管是費勒斯的回憶或是日本官員的模糊回答,都一致的指向日本傳統文化的本質,以及這種文化與戰後的天皇責任之間的關聯。
  5. 請為你所選的這部電影下幾個關鍵詞,並略作解釋。
    1. 天皇與神道-國家神道
      自明治天皇發布《教育敕語》、祭政一致後,天皇的地位與權威隨之提高,國家與神道相合,一個全國民與天皇一心同體的"家族國家"於是形成。
      這種視天皇如父母、為國家獻身的意識形態,成為二戰日本的基礎。
      這種意識型態顯現在劇中費勒斯跟綾的父親之間的一段對話。
      費勒斯:我想問下天皇在日本士兵心中,扮演甚麼樣的角色?
      綾的父親:高於一切,對陛下的責任感就是日本士兵優於美國士兵的原因。
                          如果我們和美國開戰,我們一定會贏,因為我們順從了天皇的意志。

2019年12月14日 星期六

《經濟學原理 第八章-溫明忠》筆記

溫明忠著,《經濟學原理》,新北市 : 前程文化,2013

第八章 勞動市場

  1. 工資的意義與種類
    1. 工資的意義
      1. 工資
        勞動者提供勞務,在一段時間之內的報酬
        工資=工資率*總工作時數
      2. 工資率
        指勞動的提供者在單位時間之內的報酬
    2. 工資的種類
      1. 計時工資
        按照工作時間的長短來計算工資,如速食店
      2. 計件工資
        按照所完成的工作件數來計算工資
      3. 貨幣工資
        勞動者在每一單位時間之內,提供勞務所得到的貨幣報酬
      4. 實質工資
        勞動者所賺得貨幣工資的購買力,亦即,實質工資為貨幣工資除以物價水準的結果
        實質工資↑,購買力↑,物質生活水準↑
  2. 勞動的需求
    廠商對勞動的需求是一種引申的需求,因為廠商雇用勞動的目的,不在勞動本身,而是藉由勞動去生產最終財貨
    1. 廠商的生產決定
      廠商利潤最大時,其產量決定於MR=MC,雇用工人時,也是相似的考量
      1. 從邊際產量到邊際收益產量
        1. 兩個假設:
          1. 假設廠商的產品在完全競爭市場出售,也就是假設廠商是價格的接受者
          2. 假設廠商將工資視為固定,亦即廠商雇用工人數較少,所以無法影響工資
        2. 邊際產量(MP)
          每增加一位勞動雇用量時,總產量的增加量
        3. 邊際產量遞減
          在其他條件不變之下,隨著勞動雇用量的增加,總產量的增加量呈現遞減的現象
        4. 邊際收益產量(MRP)
          每多雇用一位勞工時,總收益的增加量
      2. 勞動的邊際收益產量等於工資(MRP=W)
        追求最大利潤的廠商,會雇用勞工在工資與邊際收益場量相等之處,即MRP=W
        因為:
        1. 當W>MRP時,表示廠商付給勞工的工資,大於勞工對廠商的貢獻,所以追求最大利潤的廠商,會減少對勞工的雇用
        2. 當W<MRP時,表示廠商付給勞工的工資,小於勞工對廠商的貢獻,所以追求最大利潤的廠商,會增加對勞工的雇用
        3. 綜合上述兩者,廠商雇用工人的標準為MRP=W
    2. 廠商的引申需求與市場需求
      1. 產品市場是完全競爭時
        工資↑,勞動需求量↓ ;工資↓,勞動需求量↑
        廠商的勞動需求線完全取決於勞動的邊際收益產量,又因為勞動的邊際收益產量線是負斜率的,所以勞動需求線也是負斜率的。 
      2. 產品市場不是完全競爭時
        與完全競爭市場相同,在不完全競爭產品市場時,廠商雇用工人的標準也是勞動的邊際收益產量等於工資。
        但是勞動的邊際收益產量的公式有些不同
        1. 當產品市場為完全競爭時,MRP=P*MP,因為其中的P是固定不變的
        2. 當產品市場為不完全競爭時,MRP=MR*MP
          (由於工人↑,產量↑,產品價格↓,總收益↓)
      3. 勞動的市場需求
        將個別廠商的勞動需求線水平相加,也可以得到勞動的市場需求線
  3. 勞動的供給
    1. 出外工作、家庭工作與休閒
      1. 工資變動的影響:所得效果與替代效果
        1. 所得效果
          當工資提高時,人們選擇工作時數較少,而不是較多工作時數
        2. 替代效果
          因為工資提高而使得我們工作更多的時間
      2. 勞動供給曲線的型態
        1. A圖,替代效果大於所得效果
        2. B圖,替代效果等於所得效果
        3. C圖,替代效果小於所得效果
        4. 後彎的勞動供給曲線
          「後彎的勞動供給曲線」的圖片搜尋結果
    2. 工作與取得人力資本
      工人生產力的高低,取決於教育年限的多寡與在職訓練的有無
  4. 勞動市場均衡
    「勞動市場的均衡」的圖片搜尋結果
  5. 工資差異的原因
    1. 生產力的不同
      勞動的邊際生產力高,工資就高
    2. 特殊才藝
      當某項才藝,供給彈性小,以及需求高時,會帶動工資的價格
    3. 人力資本的投資
      人力資本的取得與累積與有形資本的取得一樣,都需要投入時間與金錢
    4. 種族與性別的原因
      種族與性別歧視,使得同工不同酬
    5. 工作的風險
      與工作相關的風險越高,工資也越高
    6. 補償性工資差異
      具有同質的工人,因為工作地點、工作時間、工作性質的不同,也會產生工資的差異
  6. 工會與勞工
    1. 工會的功能與作法
      工會的成立,其目的在於勞工工資率的提高與勞工福利的保障,其目的與廠商希望低工資率,呈現取捨關係。
      1. 直接要求高於均衡的工資率
        要求高工資,使得部分勞工失業
      2. 工會減少勞動的供給
        減少供給,提高工資
        方法有:
        1. 提高入會費限制一些有意加入的會員
        2. 以證照制度限制會員資格
        3. 在短期之內減少會員的工作時數,逼迫資方讓步
      3. 工會設法增加勞動需要
        增加勞動需要,來提供工資
        「工會 勞動供給」的圖片搜尋結果
        1. 限制進口
          透過限制進口,促使供給減少,來造成國產車價格上漲,進而擴大勞動需要
        2. 限制工會會員的工作時數
          工作時數受到限制,自然得多聘員工來增產
        3. 支持限制外勞政策
          減少外勞數量,促使廠商增加對本國勞工的需要
        4. 提高生產力
        5. 強迫雇用
          例如,防止廠商引用機械科技,來避免員工的流失
  7. 外籍勞工問題
    1. 移民經濟學的基本理論
      1. 波哈斯認為移民的影響
        1. 正面
          低工資、低技術的新移民使得勞動市場更具競爭,廠商可以較低的薪資雇到勞工而獲利,消費者也可以購買到廉價的物品
        2. 負面
          移民多數經濟情況較差,長期依賴社會福利的結果,成為美國財政上的負擔。
          另外,也搶走多數當地勞工的工作機會。
        3. 總結:兩個效果
          1. 移民使得整個社會的總產出增加
          2. 移民會造成所得重分配的結果
      2. 波哈斯認為解決失業問題的方法為,當經濟景氣好、失業率低時,提高移民人數;當經濟景氣差、失業率高時,降低移民人數。
--------------------------------



  1. Consider the following game, called matching pennies, which you are playing with a friend. Each of you has a penny hidden in your hand, facing either heads up or tails up (you know which way the one in your hand is facing). On the count of “three,” you simultaneously show your pennies to each other. If the face-up side of your coin matches the face-up side of your friend’s coin, you get to keep the two pennies. If the faces do not match, your friend gets to keep the pennies.
    1. Who are the players in this game? What are each player’s strategies? Construct a payoff matrix for the game.
      A:
      The payoff matrix should look like the one below:
    2. Is there a dominant strategy? If so, what?
      A:
      No, neither player has a dominant strategy. Recall that a dominant strategy is one that yields a higher payoff regardless of the strategy chosen by the other player. In this game, if your friend chooses Heads, then your payoff is higher when you choose Heads. On the other hand, if your friend chooses Tails, then your payoff is higher when you choose Tails. Since your best course of action varies depending on what your friend does, you do not have a dominant strategy. Similarly, if you choose Heads, then your friend is better off choosing Tails, and if you choose Tails, then your friend is better off choosing Heads. Thus, your friend also does not have a dominant strategy
    3. Is there an equilibrium? If so, what?
      A:
      No, there is no equilibrium. As discussed in part b, you will always be better off when you chose the same side as your friend; however, if both sides match, then your friend will be better off choosing a different side, but if your friend changes sides, then you too will want to change sides
  2. In studying for his economics final, Sam is concerned about only two things: his grade and the amount of time he spends studying. A good grade will give him a benefit of 20; an average grade, a benefit of 5; and a poor grade, a benefit of 0. By studying a lot, Sam will incur a cost of 10; by studying a little, a cost of 6. Moreover, if Sam studies a lot and all other students study a little, he will get a good grade and they will get poor ones. But if they study a lot and he studies a little, they will get good grades and he will get a poor one. Finally, if he and all other students study the same amount of time, everyone will get average grades. Other students share Sam’s preferences regarding grades and study time.
    1. Model this situation as a two-person prisoner’s dilemma in which the strategies are to study a little and to study a lot, and the players are Sam and all other students. Include the payoffs in the matrix.
      A:
      The strategies, players and payoffs are shown in the following payoff matrix:

      Benefits:
      Good grade: 20
      Average grade: 5
      Poor grade: 0

      Costs:
      Study a lot: 10
      Study a little: 6

      the upper-left corner and the lower-right corner, Sam and the other students are doing the same thing (either all studying a lot – upper-left or all studying a little – lower-right). In this case they will all receive an average grade and a benefit of 5. The costs of studying a lot are 10 so the payoffs in the upper-left corner are a benefit of 5 less a cost of 10 or ‘-5’. The costs of studying a little are 6 so the payoffs in the lower-right corner are a benefit of 5 minus a cost of 6 or ‘-1’.

      In the lower-left, Sam studies a little and all other students study a lot. For Sam, the benefits with the poor grade are ‘0’ with costs of 6 and a payoff of ‘-6’. For the other students who are studying a lot, the benefit of a good grade are 20 less the cost of studying a lot of 10 resulting in a payoff of ‘10’.

      The outcomes in the upper-right are just the opposite. Sam studies a lot, gets a good grade with a payoff of ‘10’. Other students study a little, get a poor grade with a payoff of ‘-6’
    2. What is the equilibrium outcome in this game? From the students’ perspective, is it the best outcome?
      A:
      The equilibrium outcome for this game is for Sam and the other students to study a lot and receive an average grade. Both the other students and Sam would be better off if everyone studying a little because it would have led to the same grade, but at a lower cost
  3. Blackadder and Baldrick are rational, self-interested criminals imprisoned in separate cells in a dark medieval dungeon. They face the prisoner’s dilemma displayed in the matrix.

    Assume that Blackadder is willing to pay $1,000 for each year by which he can reduce his sentence below 20 years. A corrupt jailer tells Blackadder that before he decides whether to confess or deny the crime, she can tell him Baldrick’s decision. How much is this information worth to Blackadder?
    A:
    The information is worth nothing to Blackadder since he knows that both he and Baldrick have the same dominant strategy, which is to confess
  4. Newfoundland’s fishing industry has recently declined sharply due to overfishing, even though fishing companies were supposedly bound by a quota agreement. If all fishermen had abided by the agreement, yields could have been maintained at high levels.
    1. Model this situation as a prisoner’s dilemma in which the players are Company A and Company B and the strategies are to keep the quota and break the quota. Include appropriate payoffs in the matrix. Explain why overfishing is inevitable in the absence of effective enforcement of the quota agreement.
      A:
      The strategies, players and payoffs are shown in the following payoff matrix:

      Starting in the upper-left cell, if both companies keep the quota, then fish stocks are large, and each company regrets not having broken the quota, because they could have earned higher profits by doing so. In the lower-right cell, both companies break the quota, and neither regrets it, because keeping the quota while the other company breaks it would lead to low profits. In the off-diagonal cells, one company earns higher profits from overfishing (which it does not regret), but the other suffers lower profits. Each company’s dominant strategy is thus to break the quota, which means that both will do so unless some way can be found to enforce the quota
    2. Provide another environmental example of a prisoner’s dilemma.
      A:
      If Firm A pollutes from its factory and no one else does, then it gains from not
      having to install pollution-control equipment (which leads to lower costs and higher profits), as well as from clean air, since my own pollution has only a negligible effect on air quality. However, if all other industrialists think this way, the air will become polluted, and all firms will be worse off than if none had polluted. Profits may also be lower if all firms pollute because the cost advantage of polluting will be shared by all firms, and competitive forces (entry) will reduce prices and profits.
    3. In many potential prisoner’s dilemmas, a way out of the dilemma for a would-be cooperator is to make reliable character judgments about the trustworthiness of potential partners. Explain why this solution is not available in many situations involving degradation of the environment.
      A:
      In many potential prisoner’s dilemmas, a way out of the dilemma for a would-be cooperator is to make reliable character judgments about the trustworthiness of potential partners, but in situations involving environmental degradation, the players usually do not know each other and there is thus no opportunity to make character judgments. In such cases, legal enforcement is often necessary
  5. Two airplane manufacturers are considering the production of a new product, a 150 passenger jet. Both are deciding whether to enter the market and produce the new planes. The payoff matrix is as follows (payoff values are in millions of dollars).

    The implication of these payoffs is that the market demand is large enough to support only one manufacturer. If both firms enter, both will sustain a loss. 
    1. Identify two possible equilibrium outcomes in this game.
      A:
      The two possible equilibrium outcomes are:
        i. Boeing produces and Airbus does not;
        ii. Airbus produces and Boeing does not.

      If the manufacturers find themselves in one of these two cells, neither will want to change its strategy. For example, consider the case in which Boeing produces and Airbus does not. Given that Airbus does not produce, if Boeing changes its strategy to "Don't Produce", its payoff will fall from $100 million to $0. Similarly, given that Boeing produces, if Airbus changes its strategy to "Produce", its payoff will fall from $0 to -$5 million. Thus, each company is making the best choice given the other company's choice. A similar argument can be made about the case in which Airbus produces and Boeing does not
    2. Consider the effect of a subsidy. Suppose the European Union decides to subsidize the European producer, Airbus, with a check for $25 million if it enters the market. Revise the payoff matrix to account for this subsidy.What is the new equilibrium outcome and why?
      A:
      Revised payoff matrix that includes subsidy to Airbus:

      Because of the subsidy, producing is now a dominant strategy for Airbus. And, since Boeing knows that Airbus will produce, it will choose not to produce

    3. Compare the two outcomes (pre- and post-subsidy). What effect does the subsidy have?
      A:
      In the absence of the subsidy, neither Boeing nor Airbus has a dominant strategy, and there are two possible equilibrium outcomes. One in which Boeing is the only manufacturer, and the other in which Airbus is the only manufacturer. The subsidy changes the game because it makes entering the market a dominant strategy for Airbus. Knowing this, Boeing will not enter the market, and Airbus will be the sole manufacturer.
  6. Jill and Jack both have two pails that can be used to carry water down from a hill. Each makes only one trip down the hill, and each pail of water can be sold for $5. Carrying the pails of water down requires considerable effort. Both Jill and Jack would be willing to pay $2 each to avoid carrying one pail down the hill, and an additional $3 to avoid carrying a second pail down the hill.
    1. Given market prices, how many pails of water will each child fetch from the top of the hill?
      A:
      In this situation, each player’s payoffs are independent of the action taken by the other. Each pail of water sells for $5, and since the cost of carrying each pail is less than $5, Jack and Jill will each carry 2 pails of water
    2. Jill and Jack’s parents are worried that the two children don’t cooperate enough with one another. Suppose they make Jill and Jack share equally their revenues from selling the water. Given that both are self-interested, construct the payoff matrix for the decisions Jill and Jack face regarding the number of pails of water each should carry.
      What is the equilibrium outcome?
      A:
      When the two children are forced to share revenues, their payoff matrix is as follows:

      This game is a prisoners’ dilemma. The dominant strategy for both Jill and Jack is to carry only one pail down the hill, even though each would be better off if both carried two pails. Therefore, their parents’ plan creates an equilibrium with total payoffs of $6 rather than $10!
  7. The owner of a thriving business wants to open a new office in a distant city. If he can hire someone who will manage the new office honestly, he can afford to pay that person a weekly salary of $2,000 ($1,000 more than the manager would be able to earn elsewhere) and still earn an economic profit of $800. The owner’s concern is that he will not be able to monitor the manager’s behaviour and that the manager would therefore be in a position to embezzle money from the business. The owner knows that if the remote office is managed dishonestly, the manager can earn $3,100, while causing the owner an economic loss of $600 per week.
    1. If the owner believes that all managers are narrowly self-interested income maximizers, will he open the new office?
      A:

      The owner knows that if he opens the remote office (top branch at A), the potential manager’s best strategy is to be dishonest (bottom branch at B), in which case the owner earns a loss of $600. Since the owner loses money by opening the remote office, he will decide against opening the new office.
    2. Suppose the owner knows that a managerial candidate is a devoutly religious person who condemns dishonest behavior, and who would be willing to pay up to $15,000 to avoid the guilt she would feel if she were dishonest.Will the owner open the remote office?
      A:
      In this case, the owner knows that if he opens the remote office, the potential manager’s best strategy is to be honest since $3,100 - $15,000 = -$11,900. Thus, the owner will open the remote office
  8. Consider the following “dating game,” which has two players, A and B, and two strategies, to buy a movie ticket or a baseball ticket. The payoffs, given in points, are as shown in the matrix below. Note that the highest payoffs occur when both A and B attend the same event.

    Assume that players A and B buy their tickets separately and simultaneously. Each must decide what to do knowing the available choices and payoffs but not what the other has actually chosen. Each player believes the other to be rational and self-interested.
    1. Does either player have a dominant strategy?
      A:
      No, neither player has a dominant strategy since the best choice for each player depends on what the other player does
    2. How many potential equilibria are there?
      (Hint: To see whether a givencombination of strategies is an equilibrium, ask whether either player could get a higher payoff by changing his or her strategy.)
      A:
      The top-left and bottom-right cells are both potential equilibria, since in each of these cells neither player has any incentive to change strategies.
    3. Is this game a prisoner’s dilemma? Explain.
      A:
      No, the payoffs in this game do not follow the pattern associated with a prisoner’s dilemma because neither player has a dominant strategy
    4. Suppose player A gets to buy his or her ticket first. Player B does not observe A’s choice but knows that A chose first. Player A knows that player B knows he or she chose first. What is the equilibrium outcome?
      A:
      Player A knows that if he or she has the first move and buys a movie ticket, so will player B, in which case player A will get a payoff of 2. If player A buys a baseball ticket, so will player B, in which case player A will get a payoff of 3. Player A will therefore buy a baseball ticket, and so will player B
    5. Suppose the situation is similar to part d, except that player B chooses first. What is the equilibrium outcome?
      A:
      The reasoning is the same as for part d, except this time both players will see a movie
  9. Consider the following game. Harry has four quarters. He can offer Sally from one to four of them. If she accepts his offer, she keeps the quarters Harry offered her and Harry keeps the others. If Sally declines Harry’s offer, they both get nothing ($0). They play the game only once, and each cares only about the amount of money he or she ends up with.
    1. Who are the players? What are each player’s strategies? Construct a decision tree for this game.
      A:
      The decision tree should look like the one below:

    2. Given their goal, what is the optimal choice for each player?
      At point B on the decision tree, Sally’s payoff will be higher if she accepts, no matter what K is. So her best choice is to accept. Knowing this, Harry gets the highest payoff by choosing K = 1. Sally’s payoff will be $0.25, and Harry’s will be $0.75
  10. Imagine yourself sitting in your car in a campus parking lot that is currently full, waiting for someone to pull out so that you can park your car. Somebody pulls out, but at the same moment a driver who has just arrived overtakes you in an obvious attempt to park in the vacated spot before you can. Suppose this driver would be willing to pay up to $10 to park in that spot and up to $30 to avoid getting into an argument with you. (That is, the benefit of parking is $10 and the cost of an argument is $30.) At the same time he guesses, accurately, that you too would be willing to pay up to $30 to avoid a confrontation and up to $10 to park in the vacant spot.
    1. Model this situation as a two-stage decision tree in which his bid to take the space is the opening move and your strategies are (1) to protest and (2) not to protest. If you protest (initiate an argument), the rules of the game specify that he has to let you take the space. Show the payoffs at the end of each branch of the tree.
      A:
       Decision tree for this problem:
    2. What is the equilibrium outcome?
      A:
      Since your payoff is -$30 if you protest and $0 of you defer, it is in your best interest to defer. Anticipating this, the other driver will steal your spot since his payoff is $10 of he steals your spot and $0 if he leaves the spot for you. So, the equilibrium outcome is $0 for you and $10 for the other driver
    3. What would be the advantage of being able to communicate credibly to the other driver that your failure to protest would be a significant psychological cost to you?
      A:
      Suppose the other driver believed that you would experience a psychological cost of $30, not only if you got into a dispute, but also if you failed to protest his unjust behavior. In that case, your payoff when deferring would be -$30, making this the worst outcome for you. The other driver would then know that attempting to steal the spot at A would make you protest at B, thereby giving him a payoff of -$30. Therefore, the other driver would be better off leaving the spot for you, and the equilibrium outcome would be $10 for you and $0 for the other driver.

2019年12月13日 星期五

《經濟學原理 第七章-溫明忠》筆記

溫明忠著,《經濟學原理》,新北市 : 前程文化,2013

第七章 獨占性競爭與寡占

  1. 獨占性競爭市場
    短期而言,屬於獨佔性競爭的廠商就像是一個獨佔公司一般,可利用部分的獨佔市場力量提高售價以獲取比較高額利潤。
    在長期而言,由於競爭者不斷進入,產品的差異化優勢因為競爭而逐漸縮小,市場慢慢變成為類似完美競爭,廠商就無法再獲得過多的經濟利益。
    特性:
    1. 買賣人數眾多
    2. 廠商出售差異性產品,亦即產品雖然不完全相同,但是可以相互替代。
      廠商對於產品與其他廠商不同之處具有獨佔性與市場力量,這一點與獨佔市場相同。
    3. 資訊充分流通
    4. 廠商可以自由進出
  2. 差異性產品
    是獨占性競爭市場的主要特色
    其特點:
    1. 產品外型的差異
      生產者可以就產品的包裝、重量、造型、顏色、味道加以設計,使得消費者感到有所不同
    2. 產品購買的方便性
    3. 銷售服務
      銷售時的服務與售後服務,都可以增加本身產品與其他產品的差異性
    4. 產品印象
      藉著拍廣告來增加消費者心中的印象
  3. 獨占性競爭的短期分析
    追求最大利潤的條件,依然是MR=MC
    「獨占性競爭市場」的圖片搜尋結果
  4. 獨占性競爭的長期分析
    長期均衡的產量取決於MR=SRMC=LRMC
    「獨占性競爭市場」的圖片搜尋結果
    1. 短期-超額利潤
      不論是以下哪一種情形,超額利潤都會逐漸消失
      1. 產能擴大-產量增加-產品售價下跌
      2. 生產要素的需要增加-生產成本的上升
    2. 短期-虧損
      不論是以下哪一種情形,虧損都會逐漸消失
      1. 產能縮小-產量減少-產品售價上升
      2. 生產因素的需求減少-生產成本的下降
    3. 綜合上面情況,獨占性競爭市場在長期之下,超額利潤為0,只有正常利潤。
    4. 最低生產規模
      以短期平均成本線(SRAC)切於長期平均成本線(LRAC)最低點的規模
    5. 最適生產量
      長期平均成本(LRAC)的最低點
    6. 產能
      最低短期平均成本所對應的產量
    7. 產能過剩
      當廠商的產量並未在短期平均成本的最低點
  5. 獨占性競爭與經濟效率
    1. 獨占性競爭的價格較完全競爭為高,但是產量卻較低
    2. 長期之下,獨占性與完全競爭市場的價格都低於SRAC與LRAC,因此長期之下,兩者的超額利潤都為0
    3. 就資源的使用效率而言,獨占性競爭市場有產能過剩的現象,完全競爭則無
  6. 廣告
    因為差異性產品的特性,獨占性競爭市場特別重視廣告與品牌的形象
    1. 反對
      1. 廣告會影響甚至操控個人的嗜好
        因為許多廣告比起提供實質的資訊,更重視心理層面的影響
      2. 廣告會阻礙競爭
        認為廣告會強化印象與品牌忠誠度,使得消費者不再重視產品的價格與品質
    2. 支持
      1. 廣告可以提供消費者相關資訊
      2. 廣告也可以強化競爭
        廣告提供的訊息讓消費者能做更多比較
  7. 品牌
    1. 反對
      認為品牌會使人覺得其產品真正與其他學名替代品不同
    2. 支持
      認為品牌代表的是較高的品質
      為了維護品牌,生產者會盡力保持一定品質,消費者也會信任品牌保證的產品
  8. 寡占市場
    也叫寡頭壟斷市場,意思是只有少數幾家生產者壟斷著這個市場
    特性:
    1. 因為只有少數廠商,所以每一家廠商都有相當程度的獨佔力
    2. 廠商間具有相互依存性,廠商對於價格的決定,不但要考慮消費者的反應,更要考慮到競爭對手的反應
    3. 因為寡占產商通常具有相當的規模經濟,形成了其他廠商的進入障礙
    4. 產品具有同質性或異質性,如水泥(同質性)、汽車(異質性)
  9. 拗折的需求曲線理論
    1. 寡占廠商定價行為的主要特性:
      1. 每一個寡占場師在定價時,不但是要考慮消費者的反應,更要預期其競爭者可能的反應
      2. 競爭廠商可能的反應,又取決於競爭廠商對該寡占廠商定價行為的預期
    2. 史威吉模型的基本假設
      1. 寡占廠商"跟跌不跟漲"
      2. 市場已經有一價格p存在
        「拗折的需求曲線」的圖片搜尋結果
    3. 史威吉模型的產量與價格的決定
      「拗折的需求曲線」的圖片搜尋結果
      1. 在一個假定的固定價格P之下,寡占廠商的行為有兩格特點
        1. 當該一寡占廠商降低售價時,其他的廠商也會跟進,以避免銷售量的減少
        2. 當該一寡占廠商提高售價時,其他廠商不會跟進,以期可以增加銷售量
      2. 符號說明:
        1. A:一開始決定的P與Q的組合點
        2. D1,改變售價P時,競爭廠商不動
          D2,改變售價P時,競爭廠商隨著跟動
          根據假設一,得AD2
          根據假設二,得EA
          總結,需求線為EAD2
        3. 當需求曲線為EA,邊際收益線為EB
          當需求曲線為AD2,邊際收益曲線為CMR2
          總結,邊際收益曲線為EBCMR2
        4. 根據MR=MC原則,決定產量為Q,價格則為P
          在BC線上,邊際成本的變動不影響產量與價格,然礙於各廠商成本結構不同,利潤也不同。
          加上"跟跌不跟漲"的心理,因此並不會隨意跟動價格。
      3. 價格的僵固性
        除非需求與成本結構發生重大的改變,否則產量與價格就顯得相當穩定
    4. 史威吉模型的缺點
      1. 無法解釋現行價格是如何決定的
        其假設與其他市場結構中,價格由供需雙方決定的情況不同
      2. 有關"跟跌不跟漲"的假設與實證資料不符
        如1970年代的停滯性通貨膨脹,就發現與史威吉模型不符的現象
      3. 資料顯示寡占市場價格變動的頻率較獨佔市場為高,與史威吉模型相反
  10. 賽局理論與合作經濟學
    賽局理論是一套分析策略行為的工具,也就是自己在做決策時,必須將對手可能的行為列入考慮,並且認知到彼此的相互依存關係。
    1. 賽局的基本要素
      1. 遊戲規則:在法律範圍內爭取最大利益
      2. 策略:
        1. 提高價格、降低價格或維持原價
        2. 增加產量、減少產量或維持產量
        3. 增加廣告支出,減少廣告支出
      3. 報償:利潤或虧損
        利潤與虧損的高低取決於需求結構與成本結構,而需求與成本又取決於每一個參與廠商彼此互動的結果
      4. 結果:
        寡占廠商如果獲利當然可以繼續經營下去,如果虧損則考慮退出,等待下一次機會
    2. 囚徒的困境
      賽局理論的非零和賽局中具代表性的例子,反映個人最佳選擇並非團體最佳選擇
    3. 寡占與囚徒的困境
      1. Nash均衡
        指在包含兩個或以上參與者的非合作賽局(Non-cooperative game)中,假設每個參與者都知道其他參與者的均衡策略的情況下,沒有參與者可以透過改變自身策略使自身受益時的一個概念解

        Nash均衡是基於某些對人的行為的假設。例如,所有參賽人皆清楚的了解對手有哪些行動,並且就所有可能的行動中選出一個最適的反應。而這些都是所有人的共同知識(common knowledge)。
  11. 勾結與卡特爾
    因為廠商很少,彼此間會透過勾結來訂定價格與產量,形成進入障礙與提高利潤,如OPEC
    1. OPEC的卡特爾難以維繫
      在維持高油價與會員國想提高市佔率之間所有拉扯
    2. 勾結在各國面臨的困難
      1. 法律的規定,禁止廠商間的聯合行為
      2. 執行的困難,因每家成本結構不同,導致售價相同有其難度
      3. 勾結者的欺騙行為,由於約定沒有約束性,背離約定價格,以求更多利潤所在多有。
  12. 寡占與經濟效率
    為了明白寡占的經濟效率,可以假設上百家的競爭廠商,最後合併成為少數幾家廠商,並比較合併以前與合併以後的廠商行為即可。
    1. 寡占售價較高
      寡占廠商因為相互依存的關係,所以會有一致的公開或秘密的定價行為,產量會較低,售價會較高
    2. 寡占售價較大
      寡占市場因為有進入障礙,所以寡占廠商會有長期利潤。
      相較於自由進出的完全競爭市場,利潤會較高。
  13. 市場型態的比較
    「市場結構比較」的圖片搜尋結果
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


  1. State whether the following statements are true or false, and explain why
    1. In a perfectly competitive industry, the industry demand curve is horizontal, whereas for a monopoly it dowward-sloping
      A:
      False. The industry demand curve is downward-sloping in both cases, but from the individual perfectly competitive firm’s point of view, the demand curve is horizontal. Because the individual firm is too small to affect the market price, it can sell as many units as it wishes at that price
    2. Perfectly competitive firms have no control over the price they charge for their product
      A:
      True. Perfectly competitive firms are price takers (i.e., if they try to charge a higher price they will lose all their business). Similarly, there is no reason to charge a lower price as they can sell any quantity they choose to at the current price.
    3. For a natural monopoly, average increase as the number of units produced increases over the relevant output range.
      A:
      True. This is the essential feature of a natural monopoly
  2. Two car manufacturers, Saab and Volvo, have fixed costs of $1 billion and marginal costs of $10,000 per car. If Saab produces 50,000 cars per year and Volvo produces 200,000, calculate the average production cost for each company. On the basis of these costs, which company's marker share do you think will grow in relative terms?
    A:
    As shown in the following table, Volvo’s greater production volume gives it substantially lower average production cost. This advantage helps explain why Volvo’s market share has, in fact, been growing relative to Saab’s
  3. A single-price, profit-maximizing monopolist:
    1. Cause excess demand, or shortages, by selling too few units of a good or service.
    2. Choose the output level at which marginal revenue begins to increase
    3. Always charges a price above the marginal cost of production
    4. Also maximizes marginal revenue
    5. None of the above statements is true
    A:
    The monopolist chooses the output level at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost and then charges a price consistent with demand at that level of output. Since price always exceeds marginal revenue, price is greater than marginal cost. The quantity produced by the monopolist at the monopoly price is exactly equal to the quantity demanded by consumers, so the monopolist does not cause excess demand or shortages (even though the monopolist’s profit-maximizing level of output falls below the socially efficient level). And the monopolist has no reason to maximize marginal revenue (which would require producing zero units of output).
  4. If a monopolist could perfectly price-discriminate:
    1. The marginal revenue curve and the demand curve would coincide
    2. The marginal revenue curve and the marginal cost curve would coincide
    3. Every consumer would pay a different price
    4. Marginal revenue would become negative at some output level
    5. The resulting pattern of exchange would still be socially inefficient
    A:
    The answer is a. The demand curve and the marginal revenue curve would coincide, because if a monopolist could perfectly discriminate, it would sell each successive unit of output for exactly its reservation price, so the marginal revenue generated from selling each successive unit would equal its reservation price.
  5. What is the socially desirable price for a natural monopoly to charge?
    Why will a natural monopoly that attempts to charge the socially optimal price invariably suffer an economic loss?
    A:
    Socially optimal means that the marginal benefit equals the marginal cost. At this point, all goods that are valuable enough to consumers to justify producing are produced; no goods with costs higher than the benefits they provide are produced. The demand curve tells us about the marginal benefits to consumers: at any given quantity on a demand curve, the price that inspires that quantity demanded is equal to the marginal benefit of the good. Therefore, setting marginal benefit equal to marginal cost requires setting a price that’s equal to marginal cost, and selling to all consumers who demand it at that price. However, this is not a good outcome for natural monopolies, which are usually characterized by very large fixed costs and relatively low marginal costs. The high fixed costs mean that average cost is greater than marginal cost, so that charging a price equal to marginal cost implies economic losses
  6. Explain why price discrimination and the existence of slightly different variants of the same product tend to go hand in hand. Give an example from your own experience
    A:
    If a firm wishes to price discriminate, it needs to be able to identify and separate consumers that are willing to pay more from consumers that have a lower willingness to pay. This is a profit-increasing strategy for the firm. Often, in order to separate customers, some minor differences are incorporated into the product that will appeal to customers with a higher willingness to pay, and then a higher price is charged for this slightly different product. For example, a well-known mail-order firm sells down-filled comforters with a plain stitch pattern at a lower price than slightly warmer comforters with a fancier stitch pattern. The price differential is about 100 percent
  7. TotsPoses, Inc., a profit-maximizing business, is the only photography business in town that specializes in portraits of small children. George, who owns and runs TotsPoses, expects to encounter an average of eight customers per day, each with a reservation price shown in the following table

    1. If the total cost of each photo portrait is $12, how much should George charge if he must charge a single price to all customers? At this price, how many portraits will George produce each day?How much economic profit will he earn?
      A:
      George’s total and marginal revenue:

      Since marginal cost equals $12, George will set a price consistent with serving only the first five customers. That price is the reservation price of the fifth customer, $34. His profit will equal his total revenue minus his total cost, or ($34 × 5) – ($12 × 5) = $170 - $60, or $110 per day
    2. How much consumer surplus is generated each day at this price?
      A:
      Consumer surplus = ($50 + $46 + $42 + $38 + $34) - ($34 × 5), or $40 per day
    3. What is the socially efficient number of portraits?
      A:
      The socially efficient number of portraits is 8, since each customer has a reservation price that exceeds the marginal cost of production
    4. George is very experienced in the business and knows the reservation price of each of his customers. If he is allowed to charge any price he likes to any consumer, how many portraits will he produce each day? How much economic profit will he earn?
      (Assume the cost of each photo portrait is still $12)
      A:
      George will produce 8 portraits, and his economic profit will be ($50 + $46 + $42 + $38 + $34 + $30 + $26 + $22) - ($12 × 8), or $192 per day
    5. In this case, how much consumer surplus is generated each day?
      A:
      No consumer surplus will be generated since each customer is paying a price equal to his/her reservation price
  8. Refer back to Problem 7 and answer the following questions.
    1. Suppose George is permitted to charge two prices. He knows that customers with a reservation price above $30 never bother with coupons, whereas those with a reservation price of $30 or less always use them. At what level should George set the list price of a portrait? At what level should he set the discount price? How many photo portraits will he sell at each price?
      A:
      The ability to offer a rebate coupon allows George to divide his market into two submarkets. The table of total and marginal revenue for the list price submarket is as follows:


      George should set the price at $34 and sell 5 photos per day in this market, since for each of these 5 customers marginal revenue is greater than or equal to marginal cost. In the discount-price submarket, the table of total and marginal revenue is as follows:


      The discount price should be $22 and George should sell 3 photos in this market, since for each of these 3 customers (customer number 6, 7, and 8) marginal revenue is greater than or equal to marginal cost
    2. In this case, what is George's economic profit and how much consumer surplus is generated each day?
      A:
      George’s economic profit is now ($34 × 5) + ($22 × 3) – ($12 × 8), or $140. Consumer
      surplus is [($50 + $46 + $42 + $38 + $34) - ($34 × 5)] + [($30 + $26 + $22) - ($22 × 3)], or $52
  9. Beth is a second-grader who sells lemonade on a street corner in your neighborhood. Each cup of lemonade costs Beth 20 cents to produce; she has no fixed costs. The reservation prices for the 10 people who walk by Beth’s lemonade stand each hour are listed in the table below. Beth knows the distribution of reservation prices (that is, she knows one person is willing to pay $1.00, another $0.90, and so on), but she does not know any specific individual’s reservation price

    1. Calculate the marginal revenue of selling an additional cup of lemonade. (Start by figuring out the price Beth would charge if she produced only one cup of lemonade, and calculate the total revenue; then find the price she would charge if she sold two cups of lemonade; and so on.)
      A:
      See 3rd and 4th rows of the table below.
    2. What is Beth’s profit maximizing price and quantity?
      A:
      Beth maximizes her profit by producing at the level of output at which marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. This occurs at a price of $0.60. The corresponding quantity sold is 5 cups of lemonade
    3. At that price, what are Beth’s economic profit and total consumer surplus?
      A:
      Profit equals total revenue minus total cost. Since Beth has no fixed costs, at a price of
      $0.60, her profit equals (5 × $0.60) - (5 × $0.20) = $2 per day.

      Total consumer surplus in Beth’s lemonade market is found by adding together the price each consumer is willing to pay minus the price they actually pay.

      Total consumer surplus = ($1 - $0.60) + ($0.90 - $0.60) + ($0.80 - $0.60) + ($0.70 - $0.60) = $1 per day
    4. What price should Beth charge if she wants to maximize total economic surplus?
      A:
      Total economic surplus is maximized when price is equal to marginal cost. In this market, marginal costs are constant at $0.20 per cup
    5. Now suppose Beth can tell the reservation price of each person. What price would she charge each person if she wanted to maximize profit? Compare her profit to the total surplus calculated in 9d.
      A:
      She would charge persons A through I their respective reservation prices. Doing so would earn her a profit of $3.60, which is the same as the total economic surplus in part d. Note the total economic surplus is maximized in both this problem and part d, but the distribution of the surplus is different

2019年12月11日 星期三

《北京的辮子-清代台灣的官僚體系》筆記

許雪姬,《北京的辮子-清代台灣的官僚體系》,自立晚報出版社,1993

第一章 台灣的文官體系

                          |------------閩浙總督------|        |-------福建布政使|
皇帝------吏部--|                                       |------|                              |-----分巡臺廈道
                          |------------福建巡撫------|        |-------福建按察使|

  1. 吏部
    管理全國文職官的任免政令,制定京師與各省衙門文職官的名額,主持文官的銓選,以定其陞遷、賞罰。
    首長是尚書,侍郎其次,以為輔佐尚書。
    1. 文選清吏司
      查核文職官的品級及其陞遷調補之事
    2. 考功清吏司
      對文職官的議敘與處分
    3. 稽勳清吏司
      關於丁憂、終養、出繼、入籍、更名、復姓的事情
    4. 驗封清吏司
      文官的封爵、議卹、土官世職、任用官吏
      1. 封爵,分為公、侯、伯、子、爵、男、輕軍都尉、騎都尉、雲騎尉、恩騎尉共九級
      2. 議卹,因公殉職者得議敘其封贈官銜
      3. 土官世職,發給載有世系及襲職年月的"號紙"
      4. 任用官吏(胥吏),分京外與京內兩種,由此司考核任用
  2. 封疆大吏(地方大員)
    中國分十八省,各省的重要職官稱為方面大員,每一省設巡撫、布政使、按察使各一員,來管理一省之庶政
    1. 閩浙總督
      管理福建、台灣、浙江地區的封疆大吏
      職權:
      1. 上奏諮請之權
      2. 制定省例之權
      3. 陞遷調補文武官員之權
      4. 監督文武官員之權
      5. 節制綠營軍隊之權
        *有事時,總督統兵於前,巡撫則做後勤支援
      6. 監督會計及藩庫之權
      7. 裁判權
        縣→府→道→督(第四級的審判,也是地方區劃的最終審)
      8. 與外人交涉權
    2. 福建巡撫
      福建巡撫因為與閩浙總督同城,職權之間沒有太大的差別
      總督側重治軍、巡撫側重民政
      *1885年台灣建省,福建巡撫改為台灣巡撫,福建巡撫的職責改由閩浙總督監管
      職權:
      1. 監理關稅
      2. 管理釐金
      3. 掌管鹽政
      4. 督考鄉試
    3. 福建台灣巡撫
      如同他省巡撫一樣,管轄一省之事務及海關,只有兩點不同:
      1. 鹽務本該由巡撫管轄,但建省後,為福建鹽產產銷問題,仍由福建鹽法道綜理
      2. 台灣不添設按察使,而由台灣道加按察使頭銜來行使按察使的職權
    4. 福建布政使
      清代設督撫後,布政使在行政上失去獨立性,只類似於今天的民政、財政兩廳
      職權:
      1. 宣布朝廷政令,使之達於州縣
      2. 管理一省的財政
      3. 每十年將管內州縣報告,審查一省的戶口,將之申報戶部
      4. 監督及撤調府州縣以下的官吏
    5. 福建按察使
      職權:
      1. 一省之刑名案件
      2. 省內驛傳事務
      3. 每三年一次的鄉試,由按察使充考察官
    6. 台灣布政使(台灣設於1885年建省後,第一任為邵友濂)
      布政使一般稱作藩司、方伯,其下設布庫大使以為輔佐
      職權:(主要是錢糧方面)
      1. 全台財政、兵餉由布政使負責
  3. 地方職官
    1. 台灣道
      輔佐布政、按察兩司辦理地方政務,介於府州與省之間的地方長官
      1. 守道,駐守一地館錢糧
      2. 巡道,分巡某一地方管刑
      3. 分巡臺廈兵備道,分巡指巡道,兵備道指軍權,是台灣地區最高的文官
        其加按察使頭銜,與台灣鎮總兵共同審判
        *1885年台灣建省,台灣巡撫成為全台最高文官,台道則成為台撫之輔佐
    2. 台灣知府
      司道之下,州廳縣之上設有府,承上啟下的地方長官
      職責:
      1. 徵收各種稅收-府徵收廳縣須納之錢糧,扣除行政費用外,解送給布政使
      2. 審判案件-流刑以下由州縣轉呈給府,並將結果申詳於按察使
      3. 管理府考
      4. 監督州縣
        台灣知府:
        1. 台南府知府(1684-1888稱台灣府知府)
        2. 台北府知府(設於1875)
        3. 台灣府知府(設於1887)
    3. 同知
      知府的左貳官或是專管地方
      專管地方的同知職責:
      1. 警察事務
      2. 供給軍糧
      3. 河海防禦事務
      4. 鎮府蠻族事務
    4. 通判
      功能與同知相似,也分為兩種性質(與上述相似)
    5. 知州
      州是府屬的行政單位,大半是由繁要之縣改設,其規制一如縣
    6. 知縣
      掌一縣之政令,凡是該縣之地方賦役、訴訟等事,由該知縣負責
      (台灣一共有11個知縣)
    7. 胥吏
      政治職能的實際執行者,一般一個大縣用的胥吏約千餘人,小省也用數百人
      可分為兩個部分:
      1. 外班(官員的隨從)、快手(捕捉犯人)、弓兵、忤作(驗屍)、鬥子(衙門內外傳呼)、斗級(糧倉保管)、庫子(物庫保管)
      2. 專門在各級衙門各個科房主官文書、冊籍、帳目的書吏

第六章 清代台灣的吏治

  1. 影響吏治不良的原因
    1. 來台官員的心態
      不是危險的邊疆,就是剝削收賄的肥缺
    2. 監督考核的鬆散
      1. 閩浙督撫多以閩浙為重,對台認識甚少
      2. 鎮、道可不經督撫上奏,督撫雖有統屬權,卻無法運用
    3. 以武抑文
      武官的總兵多壓制文官的道台,且台灣文官少於武官
    4. 督府調補權的濫用
      封疆大吏位高權重,往往以籍貫或派系的關係來派任台灣的官員
  2. 吏治不良的現象
    1. 官員侵吞款項
    2. 台灣械鬥風氣,官員難以治理
  3. 有關台灣官吏素質的看法
    台灣吏治不良,是清廷消極治台的政策使然
    1. 禁止潮惠等廣東東北部一帶的客家人來台
      潮州為鄭成功故鄉,以及客家被認為犯罪率高,因此禁止來台
      終致導致粵民的弱勢
    2. 渡海禁令的頒布也產生了極為不良的負作用
      1. 偷渡現象嚴重
        清廷規定來台民眾必先申請照單,又不得攜家帶眷。
      2. 文武汛口官員貪污
        清廷對自大陸來台的路線也予以指定。
        鹿港、滬尾、鹿耳門對蚶江、五虎門、廈門
        偷渡的人常賄賂文武汛口官員,以求順利登陸。